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I^he Natural Education Series 

NEW METHODS 
in EDUCATION 



Art 

Real Manual Training 

Nature Study 



Explaining processes whereby hand, eye and mind are 

educated by means that conserve 
vitality and develop a union of thought and action 



By J. LIBERTY TADD 

Director of the Public School of Industrial Art 

Of ma-nual trainiug in the Roman Catholic higli school 

And of several night schools, all at Philadelphia. Pa 

Member of the Art club, Sketch club and Educational club 

And of the Academy of Natural Sciencea. Philadelphia 

Directoi- Adirondack Summer School 



With a Wealth of Illustration 



ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

Springfield, Mass New York, N Y Chicago, 111 

LONDON 

SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON Sr CO, Ltd 

I9OI 



Library of Conprresa 

Two Copies Rcceiv-ed 
FEB 12 1901 

Copyright entry 

N.-.^.oa.^.^ 

SECOND COPY 



!_ 









THIS, THE STUDENT'S EDITION 
First printing January, 1901. The Origi- 
nal Unabridged Edition De Luxe 
has passed through five printings, and is in 
its eighth thousand, November, 1900. 



Bntered according to the act of 
Congress, in the year 189S, by- 
Orange Judd Company, in the 
office of the Librarian of Con- 
gress, aloWacAangtora »«• « 



"R^giifte^'ed aVStatftfrftrs' MaH,« 
London, England. 



PUBLISHERS' PREFACE 

To the Students^ Edition 

Thk abridgment of Mr. Tadd's original and complete work is 
issued in response to an imperative demand for a smaller and more 
compact book for use by teachers and students. It omits the author's 
preface and Dr. Hailmann's address. But it gives entire Books One, 
Two, Three and Four of the complete and more expensive edition 
de luxe. 

Of Book Five, only the first chapter is included herein. The 
table of contents indicates the nature of the important chapters of 
Book Five necessarily omitted herefrom, but which appear in full 
in the complete work. The index to this edition includes references 
to the omitted portions. 

For a book not yet two years old, Mr. Tadd's work has exerted 
a profound influence throughout the educational world, irrespective 
of national boundaries. In the United States and Canada, its reception 
has been most gratifying, and these methods are being widely applied 
in public, private and parochial schools with results that Justify the 
encomiums of Mr. Tadd's work pronounced by the most competent 
authorities. His own schools and classes are thronged by enthusiastic 
pupils and teachers, while his lectures and demonstrations before the 
various educational societies and art institutes of nearly all the large 
cities of America have drawn an attendance and created an interest 
seldom, if ever, equaled. 

In foreign countries, Mr. Tadd's methods have attracted wide- 
spread attention. The leading society of teachers of art and manual 
training in Germany have translated this book into the German for 
use throughout the empire, and it has been published at Leipsic. In 
England, the book has been received with marked cordiality, and 
Mr. Tadd's lectures before the Society of Arts, London, at Kensington 
museum, and before various educational and art bodies of the leading 
cities in England, Scotland and Wales, have done much for educa- 
tional progress. Government officials and educational authorities in 
France, Switzerland, Italy, Sweden and Russia have strongly indorsed 



iv Preface 

these methods and they have been welcomed in Australasia and 
elsewhere. 

The methods herein are the result of more than twenty years' 
work, experiment and research with many thousands of pupils and 
hundreds of teachers, at the Public Industrial Art School, Philadelphia. 
"Nothing was taken for granted, and all processes had to stand the 
test of long experience and application to large numbers of pupils." 
Every known method was tested, the good retained and improved 
while the bad was rejected. As the author's preface truly says: 

"We should develop a disposition disposed to energetic action or work, in response to stim- 
ulating thought — a disposition that hungers and thirsts for right action, according to environ- 
ment. Too often mere head-learning creates a vv'ish or desire for good, vifitliout there being suffi- 
cient impulse in the organism to prompt the energetic action required to achieve it. For this 
purpose energy must be stored in the organism, and conserved by a training in action and deeds, 
until the working out of thoughts in deeds grows into a habit. To consume and waste the 
vital energy by beginning too early with abstract tasks and various forms of thought s'.udies, 
is as needless as it is common. Too often I find the inind to be enfeebled, the memory weak- 
ened, the vitality abused and consumed by studies meant to strengthen; instead of methods 
being employed that would conserve and add to vitality, at the same time that the mind, the 
memory, the judgment and the imagination are being improved. 

"In common with this improvement of the mental and physical being, there should be a 
develcpment of the emotional being through the feelings — a love of action, a training of 
hand and eye to obey the mind and execute its orders, that fit both head and hand, heart and 
will, to cope with the problems of life. 

"Nothing gives greater dignity to man than a complete realization of the power of being 
able to do. No joy is greater or more lasting than that received by doing well with the com- 
plete being, — brain, eye, hands, will and judgment, — all tools, God-given tools, to be trained 

and used." 

* * * * 

"Largely as a result of imperfect training, or wrong methods of education in youth, 
beauty and high quality of product are too commonly lacking in mechanical industries and 
in the world of literature and the fine arts. Our people excel in quantity of product, but not 
in quality. If they are to compete with the real art that characterizes so much of t'.:e fine 
products of the old world or of the Orient, tlien the art idea must be made mare prominent 
in education. Art instruction should be so correlated with other methods as to help in reform- 
ing the educational errors alluded to. When this is properly done the rising gsnerations 
will reach a development in the many that has heretofore been enjoyed only by the few. Our 
youth will come out of the early educational process sound in brain and body, strong of 
purpose, positive in application, trained in the use of hand and eye, with o.ig'nality developed 
and judgment matured, possessing an ability and a capacity to vise it that will manifest them- 
selves in every art and industry. And this means a building up of character and a recogni- 
tion of man's duty to humanity, and to God, by which alone are to be fostered the best citizen- 
ship, the largest human happiness and the fullest enjoyment of the marvels of this wonderful 
universe in which we live. 

"Toward this high purpose the present work is a modest contribution. It suggests new 
methods of education, but only such as have stood the test of many years' searching investiga- 
tion and practical experience. It aims to show by actual results that art instruction, real 
manual training and nature study, rightly conducted and properly correlated with other 
studies, should begin at a tender age and continue throughout the elementary and higher 
stages of education. This book is not merely a technical manual of drawing and design, of 
modeling and carving, of construction in wood and metal, or of the fine arts, but is designed 
to demonstrate the remarkable educational power of these methods when rightly used, the 
economy of their universal application, and their beneficial effect in helping to qualify the 
individual to make the most of himself or herself. It also gives an insight into the modus 
operandi of these m.ethods, to the end that they may be more generally practiced by parents 
and teachers and fully comprehended by school authorities and people of affairs." 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



"BOOK ONE—^irst Principles 

Chap. 1« Introductiox. 

Estlietic training necessary in education. The first tools. 
The methods advocated. Rotation of branches of work. Makes the 
hand skillful. Influence of beauty. Moral training, its value. How 
to get moral culture. Trade teaching only not beneficial. Discover 
capacity, then educate it. First experiments. Fundamental meth- 
ods. Educators, scientists, doctors and parents express hearty good 
will. 3-10 

Chap. 2. Development of Bext or Dispositiox. 

Capacity for hand skill. Lack of hand skill one cause of pov- 
erty. Iinportance of finding out the " bent " of the young. Skill- 
fulness beneficial and a means of mental expansion. Real manual 
training a means of finding out capacity. Necessity of an energetic 
disposition. Inspiration by performance of deeds. 11-15 

Cliap. 3. Importaxce of Coxtact with Things Instead of 

THE Symbols of Things. 

Importance of various sense impressions. Importance of get- 
ting ideas first. Thought fabric built by variety of expression. ' 
Assimilate facts not words only. Repetition and the force of habit. 
Vital union of head, hand, heart. Various sense impressions organ- 
ized into concrete ideas. Drawing a mode of thought expression. 
Book-bred people indisposed to action. Importance of visual mem- 
ory. Too much reading divorces ideas from action. "Words studied 
at the expense of ideas. All channels for improving the mind to be 
used. Automatic obedience of the hand. Right manual training 
will give a love of nature. 16-23 

Chap. 4. Distinction Between the True and False in 

Manual Training. 

Different kinds of manual training. iMeihods that prevent real 
manual training. Stupid claims for sloyd. Utilitarian idea over- 
done. Sloyd selected for criticism. Sloyd not real manual training. 
Automatic dexterity desired. Some exercises consume energy and 
inspiration. Proper wood-working operations. jNlanual training a 
mode of thought expression. Ideas the basis of originality. Art in 
handicraft very rare. Real manual training better than apjirentice- 
ship. Mechanical training not hand training. Hand skill should 
precede trade training. What are drawing and manual training? 
Objections on account of cost. Ease of application to large num- 
bers. Cost of elaborate plants should be spent on teachers. 24-34 

(V) 



^^ Table of Contents. 

Chap. 5. Lack of Traixixg ix Dkawixg— Its Necessity. 

Lack of real power of drawing. Lack of art training in com- 
mon school. _ False systems formulated by publishing firms. Sew- 
ing and cooking not real manual training. Necessity of systematic 
training of the senses. Drawing trains the perceptive faculties. 
Hand skill makes intelligence. Insufficiency of old method. Teach- 
ers must be able to draw. Supervisors should be able to draw. 
Misuse of type forms. Foolish statements by so-called teachers. 
Absurdities of commercial systems. Ai-tificial forms, stained papers, 
etc., useless. The art part vital. Art and manual training teach- 
ers should be examined. Drill essential in the elementary stages. 3546 

Cliap. 6. RiCxHT AXD Left Hand Work, Ambidextrous Work. 

Systematic influence. Reasons for ambidextrous work. Not 
unreasonable mind building. Abstract work wrong. Old methods 
of education neglect both hands. 47-51 

Chap. 7. Drawing Correlated with Other Studies. 

Correlate the drawing with other school work. Bad use of art 
work in schools. Compels love of nature. The beginning of wis- 
dom. Knowledge of thinos of first importance in education. Good 
pictures improve taste. Futility of present methods. Drawing a 
mode of thought expression. Meissonier. (irowth of ideas. Ideas 
must be locked into the mind. 52,57 

Chap. 8. Nature Studies — Right Methods. 

Looking at things not enough. Familiarity not knowledge. 
Impressions must be repeated systematically. Let study have perma- 
nent results. ^Ve must appreciate the beauty of nature. Permanent 
organic impressions must be made. Effect on health of improper 
methods. Beauty and mystery of common things. Divine energy 
in matter. Improved methods of study needed. Universal use of 
new modes of expression. 58-64 

BOOK TWO-Mamal-Traimng Drawing 

Chap. 1. Considerations in :\L\xual Training Drawing. 

The two kinds of drawing. Paper. Pencils. 65-74 

Chap. 2. Elementary Drill Forais. 

To get automatic facility. The first exercise is the circle. 
Straight lines. The double loop. Application of the loop. Reason 
for these movements. The spiral. Modeling and carving. 75-86 

Chap. 3. Elementary Units. 

Simple leaf forms. The natural method. Complex leaf forms. 
These exercises are for discipline. Conventional forms. Units of 
design based on the spiral. The crocket. On th e elements of 
design. Combinations of units. Leading lines. 87-100 

Chap. 4. Combinations of Units and Styles. 

The anthemion. Combinations of the anthemion. Complex 
leaf forms. Bud forms. Another beautiful series of leaves. The 
Moorish units, 101-120 

Chap. 5. Drill Forms and Designs. 

Exercises to compel accuracy. Di-ill work. Work in design. 
Color and brush work. Blackboard work. Designing on black- 
boards. 121-1.38 



Table of Contents. 



Chap. 6. Drawing from Life Forms axd Memory Drawing- 

Persistence required. Memory drawing. Fisli forms. Typical 
forms. Speaking through the finger tips. Importance of simplicity. 
A warning. Variety in forms. Fish forms in design. General 
remarks. 139-154 

Chap. 7. Drawing from Nature and from Memory. 

Blaclvboard work. Bird forms. Color in birds. Botanical 
forms. 155-168 

Chap. 8. Conventional and Symbolic Forms. 

Dolphins make beautiful forms. Griffins. The bird form. 
Drawing from objects. Symbolism, Plaster models. Architec- 
tural models. ' 169-184 

BOOK THREE-ModeUng 

Chap. 1. Introduction, Plant, etc. 

Only one way to know form. The plant required. A good 
box for the clay. 185-192 

Chap. 2. Elementary Courses in INIodeling. 

jNIanipulation of clay. The spiral. Leaf forms. Circular 
forms. Hints to the teacher. Elementary forms. Animal forms. 
Other animal forms. Vessel forms. 193-208 

Chap. 3. Modeling Fruit and Vegetable Forms. 

The apple. The pear. Hints to teachers. The bairana. Fruit 
tile. Make a composition. Vegetable forms. The tomato. The 
turnip. 209-220 

Chap. 4. MoDELiN(f Geometric Forms. 

The sphere. The cube. The cylinder. The square prism. 
The cone. 221-228 

Chap. 5. Modeling for Grammar Grades. 

Pay particular attention to fine curves. Build solid tile for 
scrolls. The rosette form. Position of tools. The leaf units. The 
INIoresque form. The scroll and crocket. Combination of scrolls 
and leaflets. The anthemion. The curved leaf. Simple shell 
forms. 229-246 

Chap. 6. Modeling Animal Forms. 

Suggestions. Directions for modeling. Must d^o work to real- 
ize its educational value. 247-256 

Chap, 7. Wax Modeling. 

Cost and care of wax. Drawing and lining in design. Hough 
texture wood best. Modeling animal forms. 257-260 

"BOOK FOUR— Wood Carving 

Chap. 1. Tools for Wood Carving: Design in Wood. 

The tools required. Age at which to learn. The wood to use. 
Designing the form to carve. As to graded work. 261-270 

Chap. 2. Instructions for Elementary Carving. 

How to carve. Carving the raised surface. Power in the hand. 
Encourage the pupil. The value of carving. Use of finished work. 
As a training. Finishing the carving. 271-282 



viii Table of Contents. 

Chap. 3. Carving the Elementary Units of Design. 

The scroll. The simple leaf. The spiral -with crockets. The 
anthemion. Rosettes. Square rosettes. Fluted forms. Conven- 
tionalized forms for carving. 283-290 

Chap. 4. Carving on Furniture and Other Advanced Work. 

Carving in relief on curved surfaces. Borders and moldings. 
Suitable forms for carving. Carving in the round. 291-302 

"BOOK FIVE— Various Applications 

Chap. 1. Construction in Woodwojjk and ^Mechanical 
Drawing. 

Radical featui'e of this method. Machine-shop practice has its 
place. Large economy in equipment. Use of head work. Rotation 
of work. Objects of instruction. Put art first. Good teacher bet- 
ter than good tools. Mechanical-drawing course includes what. 
Architecture. Blackboard work. The simpler exercises. Advanced 
work. Woodworking course and what it includes. Tools for wood- 
working department. IMechanical-drawing course and equipment. 
Exercises in metal work. 305-337 

Chap. 2. Correlation of Drawing with Other Studies. 

Trouble with old drawing methods. Correlation of art meth- 
ods — with language study, zoology, nature study, biology, botany, 
elementary mineralogy, entomology, chemistry, etc. 339-357 

Chap. 3. Art and Manual Training in Special Schools. 

Night schools, importance of occupation, plant, materials and 
teachers required. Vacation schools. Normal and summer schools. 359-383 

Chap. 4. Other Uses for Art, Manual Training and Na- 
ture Study. 

Decorating the school room. For backward pupils. For the 
feeble-minded and insane. Reformatories and truant schools. Mis- 
cellaneous applications. Repousse and hammered work. For par- 
ents. 385-397 

Chap. 5. Suggestions for Art Students. 

A great field for teachers. Preparing for fine art work. Fit- 
ting for the minor arts also. Charcoal drawing. Painting in water 
color from casts. Life work. Summer art work. ' 399-417 

Miscellaneous 

Author's acknowledgments. Index. List of illustrations. 
The publishers' word. 418-124 



BOOK ONE 

First Principles 





" In childhood and in the earliest period of edu- 
cation, have more care for the health of the body 
than for the mind, and for the moral character than 
for the intellectual. Let nothing base or servile, 
vulgar or disgraceful, meet the eye or assail the 
ear of the young; for from words to actions is but 
a step. Let their earliest and first impressions of 
all things be the best. Let them be taught fully all 
the essential elements of education and as much of 
what is useful in a merely mechanical point of view 
•as will have the effect of rendering the body, the 
soul, and the intellectual powers capable of arriving 
at the highest excellence of their respective natures. 
The merely useful, or absolutely necessary, matters 
of education are not the only ones that deserve 
attention, but to these should be added such as 
exalt and expand the mind and convey a sense of 
what is beautiful and noble. For to be looking 
everywhere to the merely useful, is little fitted to 
form an elevated character, or a liberal mind." — 
Aristotle. 




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CHAPTER I 

Introduction 




N THE PROBLEM OF CHILD 
education, than which there is 
scarcely any subject more widely dis- 
cussed, there enters equally wdth 
the mental, the consideration of 
the physical and the esthetic de- 
velopment. I consider esthetics — 
the science of the beautiful in nature 
and art, especially that which treats 
of the expression and embodiment of Esflietic 

beauty in art — one of the important training 

necessary in 
things in education. The young, of education 

whatever circumstance in life, have a 

right to the joy that comes from 

knowing and perceiving beauty in 

nature and in art forms. If we are to 

plant anything in the young, or 

give them any capacity, it should be 

the power of enabling them to 

perceiv^e in their environment "the 

good, the true and the beautiful." 

This of course is to be done at the same time that w^e give 

the young the capacity to make a living. To teach them a trade 

(3) 



CLOCK 

Designed, drawn and carved 
by high school boys 



First Principles 



The 
first tools 




Ingsandinitialg are mostly 
of children's work. 



The 

methods 

advocated 



only, or to fit them for business, or commerce only — to make 
square peg's for round holes, as we often do — is a mistake. I 
have no sympathy with the manual training methods that make 
the use of tools and workshop exercises the main end. The 
pupils become simply machines, thoughtless mechanisms.* 
The first tools to be used and trained are the mind, the eyes and 
the hands, — the instrumentalities of the organism. To these 
our chief care should be given. It is of little use that the pupil 
has built a machine or performed a piece of work by mechanical 
movements, if his own organism is not complete, if his hand is 
not sure, his eye not true, and his mind not balanced. 

I make a plea for this organic skill first because I have 
tested many pupils from divers institutions, and have found 
almost invariably that without instruments of precision — 
rulers, compasses, gauges, calipers, etc. — they are powerless. 
In many cases the}^ are simply plan-followers and thoughtless 
mechanics, without the elementary facility that small children 
can get spontaneously in a few weeks' practice of rational 
methods in manual training. They have been trained under 
traditional formulas to do certain things in certain ways, with- 
out any endeavor to have them realize the immeasurable life 
possibilities and potentialities planted in each person. 

The methods advocated herein for elementary work in edu- 
cation consist: — 

1. In a practical development of the factors of the organ- 
ism itself, — the hand, the eye and the brain — by the acquisition 
of their conscious control, to be followed by automatic control. 

2. In the use at certain periods of powerful rectifving 
exercises to reform or correct awkward muscular movements 



* " We teach boys to be such men as we are. We do not teach them to aspire to be all they 
cdn. We do not give them a training as if we believed in their noble nature. We scarce educate 
i!ieir bodies. We do not train the eye and the hand. We exercise their understandings to the 
(ipprohension and comparison of some facts, to a skill in numbers, in words; we aim to make 
accountants, attorneys, engineers, but not to make able, earnest, greathearted men. The great 
object of Education should be commensurate with the object of life. It should be a moral one, 
to teach selftrust; to inspire the useful man with an interest in himself; with a curiosity touching 
his own nature, to acquaint him with the resources of his mind, and to teach him what there is in 
eU his strength, and to inflame him with a piety toward the Grand Mind in which he lives." — 
|Emerson, "Lectures and Biographical Sketches," Page 134. 



Introduction 



of work 



or habits, as well as for the purpose of gaining facility, balance, 
proportion, accuracy, magnitudes, fitness and grace. 

3. Exercise in different mediums, as wood and clay, for 
acquiring dexterity and skill in shaping various ideas. 

4. Exercises for acquiring accurate and permanent 
organic memories of environment: (a) From nature, at periods 
when impressions are most vivid (nascent period), from animals, 
flowers, insects, shells, etc. ; (b) from art works and ornament 
of best periods; (r) creative designing in various materials. 

Perhaps one of the most radical features of my method, 
apart from those of ambidexterity and memory drawing, and 
one that must be understood as being applied in all our schools, j^Qtation 
is the rotation of the branches of work. The pupils do not take of branches 
a course of drawing alone, or of modeling alone, to be followed 
with another course for a certain period, but in every grade 
from the lowest the children are required to work in the four 
departments of drawing, designing, clay modeling and wood 
carving. By drawing all forms first on paper, then in soft clay, 
and then in tough wood, all the possible physical co-ordinations 
are acquired in the different materials. The work of making 
form in clay reinforces the drawing; carving in wood reinforces 
the modeling. Designing forms in clay and wood, as well as 
on paper, compels originality and invention, or the exercise of 
the creative capacity at every step of the work. 

The method or system of rotation varies with the different 
schools. In some the pupils change from one branch to the 
other at each lesson; in others, at every fourth lesson; in others 
again, a piece of work in each branch is finished before the 
change is made. This method is very stimulating to the pupils, 
and especialh^ shows for what they are best suited. The exercise 
of the opposite capacities gives them a chance to do work in the 
branches in which they show most deficiency. No exception is 
made with any pupil — all, in the elementary courses, must work 
in the various mediums, unless constitutionally defective. 

Just as I insist that elementary manual training for the 
young must precede all special work, — such as joinery, cabinet 




6 



First Principles 



Make the 
hand skillful 




Influence of 
beauty 



work, metal work, trade processes, or dranghting, mechanical 
and architecttn-al drawing, object drawing, etc., — so T insist 
that the hand must, l)y this rotation, l^ecome famihar and 
experienced with form in these different mediums. All artists 
and artisans at once admit the reasonableness of this. To make 
the hand itself skillful is necessary before it can do its best 
with tools. 

By these methods all pupils without exception develop 
their capacities. Some get remarkable power and enter the 
diverse grades of art work at once, in various directions. All, 
however, acquire sufficient skill to enter the different minor 
industries with credit. All, according to their degree of 
intelligence, are prepared to do skilled work with tools and 
hands in the different vocations open to them, after very little 
preliminary training, because they have skilled hands, true eyes 
and a certain amount of power of expression and originality. 

Memory drawing and ambidextrous drawing, as described 
in the following chapters, are made an important part of the 
course. By the nature-study drawing we endeavor to make 
permanent organic impressions of beauty that will be a joy to 
the pupils in their after lives, no matter how poor and sordid 
their lives may be. ' 

So powerful is the influence of a knowledge of beauty and 
the joy tliat comes from it, that it is possible to make a 
contented mind, or a mind that will remain contented, if 
necessary, in the most toilsome drudgery. There is a certain 
amount of compensation in this. It is not necessary that the 
so-called " lower classes " should have small minds, or low 
minds. The mind can be expanded, elevated, even in the 
lowest stages of society. This is done by art methods rightly 
directed and by esthetic culture, especially that which concerns 
itself with the expression and embodiment of beauty in form, 
which has so important an effect on the organism. 

The training of these activities has a higher outcome than 
the solely physical one. It ministers directly to a certain 
amount of moral training; it has distinct ethical effects. 



Introduction 7 

Morality is eml^odiecl in nature. Ideas of goodness and l)adness 

are received from things. Whenever children are taught to 

use their own faculties, their powers of choice and of intelligent ^^^^^ training 

^ _ and its value 

selection must become developed, until, Ijy habit, perhaps by 

instinct, preference for the good and dislike for the bad 

become ingrained. 

It is no more difficult to make children realize the immu- 
tability of moral laws than it is to teach them the immutability 
of physical laws. Just as a child knows the effect of gravity, or 
the action of fire upon the body, so it can be brought to a 
realization of the distinction between the true and the false, the 
beautiful and the ugly; the standards of these qualities are 
absolute. Perception of them, strengthened by the force of 
habit, must come through the repetition of intelligent observa- 
tion and the union of thought with action. 

If we are ever to get true morality as well as intellectuality, 

it will be by making the young recognize the rightness of '^^ s*^* true 

morality 
things. Material things, — plants, flowers, crystals, animals, — 

never cheat. All nature hums and vibrates with truth. Water, 

trees, sounds from metal, stones and wood, ring out truth every 

time. So will the children when, with loving recognition 

attained through trained observation and action, they realize 

the divinity and mystery of things. Only by enjoyment and 

love of work can this l)e effected, and to do this teachers must 

inculcate the higher objects of work, of struggle, of sacrifice and 

unselfishness, showing- that only by work, earnest endeavor, 

and unceasing effort can we reach the highest planes of physical, 

mental and ethical culture. 

Experience has gradually taught the author to change a 
great many of his ideas and plans, until he has come, during 
the last few years, to fundamentals in this direction. 

For educational purposes, he has found that the teaching 
of a trade is not the most beneficial thing that can be done for 
a boy or a girl. He has also learned that to take fifty boys notbenefidal"^ 
and make them all carpenters, or plumbers, irrespective of their 
different dispositions and tastes, is a wrong, a great wrong. 



First Principles 



Discover 
capacity, then 
educate it 



This is one of the tendencies of our modern systems of 
education that can be readily seen in most cities now where the 
industrial and the mercantile ideas have been overdone, where 
children are fitted even in the high schools and other 
institutions for commercial courses, irrespective of any natural 
capacity they may have. A great many institutions teach 
typewriting, stenography, bookkeeping, penmanship, to all 
comers, irrespective of their capacity, and by degrees the 
market has become overstocked. 

There are more clerks than we can care for, and fewer 
artisans and skilled workers than are needful. In response to 
an advertisement in almost any city requesting clerical help, 
hundreds of applications may be received. In some cases the 
applicants volunteer to work for the experience, or for nominal 
pay. If an advertisement is put in the paper for a skilled hand 
worker in almost any of the trades, the reverse is true; there will 
be very few applicants, and wages must be paid in proportion 
to capacity. 

It seems reasonable to me, and the proper thing to do, 
that we should fit our children to enter into pursuits to which 
they are specially adapted, where there is not already a crowd, 
pushing each other to the wall. It seems to me that this should 
be especially the object of the newer institutions of learning 
that are founded expressly for the purpose of helping people to 
help themselves. I consider that it is wrong to produce more 
typewriters, stenographers, bookkeepers and penmen, when 
the market is already overstocked. It seems an injury to the 
ones already working. Of course I know that by struggling, a 
percentage of these newcomers will achieve distinction, that 
they will gradually work their way to the top. But how about 
the large percentage who do not have much capacity to 
struggle, who do not have even sufficient energy to make the 
required movements to change their environment and to start 
anew in some other line, who remain drudges on account of this 
lack of disposition, or this mental inertia? Certainly, we 
should consider them. 



Introduction 9 

My first idea in leaching, years ago, was simply to give 
several kinds of drawing, — drawing from objects, mechanical 
drawing, etc., and to teach a few trades. We taught carpenter pj^st 
work, designing, painting, pottery work, mosaic setting, metal experiments 
chasing, and needle work of several kinds, at different times. 
The children and adults elected their branches of study. It was 
gradually found, however, that this was not the best plan. 
Three or four years of carpenter work, except in the limited 
operations of the trade, did not develop the eye and the hand, 
and proved futile in developing the mind and the judgment. 
The operations being mostly mechanical, and being performed 
by instruments of precision, every time a board was cut it would 
be marked off, every time a piece of wood was cut it would be 
gauged; the caliper, the T square and the ruler were con- 
stantly used. 

The sentiment of Michael Angelo gradually entered my 
mind: " We must carry our instruments of precision in the eye, 
not in the hand." Only after striving and struggling up above 
the use of instruments of precision, rulers, compasses, 
mechanical methods, do we recognize their futility in developing 
the mind, the judgment, the eye and the hand. The mechanical 
methods had to give way, one after the other, after trial in 
various directions. Only by trying and testing the old methods, 
and thus proving their fallacy, did we emerge into the light of 
better ways. 

Feeble art methods, trade training, abuse of geometric 

forms and blocks, false, artificial and unnatural systems devised 

for monev-making purposes, were tried and proved wanting. 

^ , ■, 1 • 1 • -1 1^ Fundamental 

A number of trade processes were tested with similar results, methods 

until we actually, by experience, came down to fundamental 

facts, and on these we have built up a method reasonable, 

feasible and without great cost, adapted to all grades, from child 

to adult; a plan that can be applied without friction to every 

kind of educational institution, and limited only by the capacity 

of the individual; a method covered by natural law, working 

with the absolute precision of nature itself; a process that 



JO 



First Principles 



Educators, 
scientists and 
doctors express 
hearty good 
will 



unfolds the capacities of children, as unfold the leaves and flow- 
ers; a system that teaches the pupils that they are in the plan 
and part of life, and enables them to work out their own salva- 
tion on the true lines of design and work as illustrated in every 
natural thing. 

Many educators, scientists and doctors have expressed 
their hearty good will toward the method outlined in this work, 
anything saving wear and tear of mind and matter appealing to 
them directly. Much time and energy are saved to pupils 
working this way; their understanding of things being quick- 
ened, they have less drudgery to go through to obtain facility. 

The work is chiefly and above anything else to be desired 
for its disciplinary value as an educational method, apart from 
its practical value, in that it cultivates judgment, proportion, 
symmetry and fitness. In drawing on blackboards, the 
children take exercise. The work is done on so large a scale 
that they have to move about, no small work being allowed. 
The children avoid the hal)it of peering at lines, shortening their 
focal length. This is one great trouble in the drawing, reading 
or writing as usually followed in schools. In many instances 
much damage is done to sight. Too many children wear 
spectacles in these days. 




Oritrinal Design 



CHAPTER II 




Development of 
Bent Of Disposition 

HIS BOOK IS ALSO PRI- 
marily written to aid people 
remote from art centers and edu- 
cational opportunities. It is 
not so much with the idea that 
with the book they can learn to 
do the work, as it is in the w^ay of 
suggestion to those wdio cannot 
be reached by other means. 
The millions of such people, 
young and old, may perhaps be 
helped by knowing that most of 
the ideas embodied in this book 
have been gained in the hard 
school of experience. 

A large portion of the chil- 
dren in the various schools and 
in the different communities are 
especially endowed or have a native capacity for hand skill, — 
the power to do skillful work in many diverse pursuits. There 
is a much larger proportion of these than many people believe. 
This has been demonstrated by numbers of experiments I have capacity for 
made and from graded tables based thereon for a period of hand skill 
years. This is true of the upper classes of society as well as 
the lower. 

(II) 




Enlareinff Drawinirs 



J2 



First Principles 



Lack of hand 
skill one cause 
of poverty 



Importance of 
finding out the 
"bent" of the 
young 



Experiments have l)een going on in a number of countries, 
and in a variety of institutions and prisons, which have proved 
conclusively that what have been termed " the lowest and most 
degraded members of society " owe their condition partlv to the 
lack of this capacity and of their hand craft l^eing undeveloped. I 
have found in penal institutions in which I have taught or con- 
ducted classes, a fair proportion of pupils who, with development 
and training-, would have shown extraordinary capacity. The 
same is also true of people who have unfortunately been bred in 
the lap of luxur}', and who have never been taught to do any- 
thing, or had their capacities in these directions trained. A very 
fair proportion of the pupils in some of the best private schools 
and colleges, where I have been able to come in contact with 
numbers of this class, show remarkable skill and capacity. 

For a series of }'ears I have kept tally of numbers of cases 
among parents, care-takers and friends of children who have 
visited my various schools. Test questions put to them show 
that a very large proportion have never been able to develop 
their bent or disposition, and in the course of time and expe- 
rience they have foimd this out. One of the commonest state- 
ments in my schools is that made by parents, when they say 
their primary desire in bringing the children is that they nioy 
get the training which they themselves did not have and which 
they should have had when they were young. It is remarkable 
how man}' parents acknowledge that they feel now that in 
youth they had a taste for certain branches which they were 
never able to carry out, perhaps an inclination toward mechan- 
ics or construction, or a feeling for form, and it is sorrowful to 
hear the regret that is sometimes thus expressed. 

If the methods in this book are good for anything at all, it 
will be for the fact that we do find out by their aid the disposi- 
tion or " bent " of the pupils. I am inclined to think that this 
capacity to find out the especial capacity of pupils by various 
tests is one of the best parts of our work. Surely this is one of 
the first things to be done in education. Even if the children 
are to be compelled to follow certain distasteful pursuits for 



Development of Bent or Disposition 



J3 



Illustration tt 




Freehand Manual and Memory Drawins 



money, there is no reason why they should be debarred from a 
ghmpse of, or an insight into, the possibiHties and potentialities 
they have or might have. Mnch might be saved in the way of 
care and worry to the individual, and much gained in the giving 
of a capacity to enjoy, by following out certain of the lines 
herein contained, as a recreation or a hobby. Everyone recog- 
nizes the value of this to-day. 

Few parents realize the great variety of skilled pursuits 

that are now open in the various directions of hand work, as sinfulness 

beneficial and 
compared with a few years ago. The old idea that the only a means of 

respectable pursuit for one's child is a profession has been worn "^^n^al 

•^ >- ... expansion 

out for many years in this country, but it persists in more 

places than would be suspected, simply through ignorance of 

the enormous expansion of the industrial world of to-day, with 



J4 



First Principles 



Real manual 
training a 
means of finding 
out capacity 



Necessity of an 

energetic 

disposition 



its opportunities and fortunes. I am so penetrated with this idea 
from my experience that I consider it wrong for any child in 
any condition of life to be debarred from at least a portion of 
this fundamental work. Even in the professions, such as that 
of clergyman, doctor or lawyer, judgment, reason and imagina- 
tion are required. It is not fair that men and women of affairs 
should be debarred from the extra power and mental expansion 
that these capacities or opportunities give them." 

Again, many kinds of luisiness are so much alike, recjuiring 
some technical skill in diverse directions, that it is almost impos- 
sible for those entering on a career to be able to find out in a few 
years whether they are especially suited or adapted to it. It is 
very disheartening gradually to realize in the course of time their 
lack of fitness or capacity for the pursuit they are following. This 
is illustrated by thousands of cases all over the world. I have in 
mind some bitter experiences that I have suffered individually. 
I have a vivid recollection of a dentist who should have been a 
farmer. I have seen many doctors and surgeons who should 
have been in the possession of perfect control of their hands and 
fingers, yet who seem to be possessed of " thumbs " only. Every 
year of experience will show us such distressing cases, and few 
can attain to positions of responsibility and care without coming 
in contact with many instances of this kind. 

The author's hope is to help that great army of persons 
who feel that they are not especially gifted or endowed in any- 
thing', and to make them able to expend their energies to advan- 
tage in some practical way — energies that are too often wasted 
and puttered away in trifling work or labors that accomplish 
nothing in ministering to their welfare. Too often many fail in 
life, though possessing good intentions and desire to do their 
best. They try one thing and then another, never becoming 
thorough in any direction, and never becoming able to earn a 
proper or sufficient income. Tlieir work is only half-hearted, 
they do not feel that it is their mission, and consequently move- 
ments 
product results. 



are made that are not energetic enough and little 



Development of Bent of Disposition 



J5 



Satisfaction is essential to the mind and body. The organ- 
ism is fortunately so constituted that a satisfying income or a essential' 
full purse is intimately related to a contented mind and an 
energetic body. 

How many teachers there are who, through small pay and 
physical and mental inertia, do injustice to their pupils. While 
frequently well meaning and endowed with altruistic desires, 
they fail to accomplish anything; nay, they even do harm and 
injur}^ because to be a good teacher requires essentially the 
inspiration that the art of teaching is divine. It is a mission to 
teach children having souls. The teacher must especially real- 
ize that each mind or soul is an immortal part of the future 
heaven he -or she is helping to build. 

How differently one feels and works when the right thing inspiration by 

and the right way have been found! How much more intense P5'^o''™a"ce 

, . . of deeds 

every thought and action become. This is one of the objects 

of this book — to show ways and means that transform the dull 
routine and drudgery of teaching into a pleasurable and profit- 
able means to the welfare of manv. 




Blackboard Drill Work in Design 



CHAPTER III 



--3i. \\\ I 



Importance of 
various sense 
impressions 



Bench Work 



Importance of Contact 
with Things instead 
of the Symbols of 
Things * 





IFE IS A SUCCESSION 
of lessons that must be lived 
to be understood." " Experi- 
ence, and not memory, is the 
mother of ideas." My desire 
is to impress all with the im- 
portance of developing the 
organism through each of the 
different sense channels, in 
addition to the verbal or word 
centers. The tendency with 
the present modes of educa- 
tion is to overtax the memory 
and overload the mind with 
studied words. Instruction by 
telling is a feeble mode of 
impressing the mind. " Ac- 
tions speak louder than 
words." Only in proportion to my experience can I under- 
stand the symbols of things, that is, words. Words are empty 
sounds unless accompanied by clear ideas or thoughts of the 



* I am indebted to Dr, Hailman for many of the ideas expressed in this chapter. 

(16) 



Contact with Things J 7 

things signified. I can have true ideas or false ideas only in 
proportion to my experience. 

" Ideas are symbolized by words. Words are signs for nat- 
ural facts. Every object, rightly seen, unlocks a new faculty 
in the soul and thus becomes a new weapon in our arsenal of 
power." It is important in the first place to secure ideas, then 

to connect these ideas with intelligible words. " The content of 

Importance of 
a word depends upon the character of the idea symbolized." To getting ideas 

the child the word symbolizes no more than his own ideas. The *"^^^ 
supreme thing, then, is (i) to secure ideas, (2) to connect these 
ideas with intelligible words, (3) to combine these ideas and 
words with appropriate actions, (4) to secure a complete work- 
ing of this mechanism in each instance; this union of securing 
thought and action so that it works unfailingly and in a measure 
becomes conduct or behavior. 

Every natural object bristles with facts, teems with ideas. 
I should be bristling with facts, I should teem with ideas! The 
object should inspire me to become eloquent, to give expression Thought fabric 

through my various channels of facts and ideas. Bv the tongue ^7L,^rUotrn ^ 
•J ■' .' o 01 expression 

I should vocally give expression to ideas. I should be able to 
write ideas, and should give expression to them by means of 
drawing, constructing, modeling, painting, etc. By this means 
we make thought fabric and mind structure. 

We consider too much the symbols of knowledge instead 
of the sources of knowledge— the objects, facts and processes 
of nature in time and space. How can we expect to grasp the 
ideas represented by these objects, facts and processes unless Dissipation 
we embody them? We too often introduce our children to the ^ 
sources of information which books supply, instead of to those 
sources which nature and experience supply. If we give them 
information from books only, there are a consumption of vital- 
ity, a dissipation of energy, a diversion of the attention and a 
prevention of the impulse which prompts to action. 

On the other hand, if we introduce our children to the 
sources of knowledge, the facts, objects and processes of nature, 
there are a conservation of energy, a storing of vitality, an 



iS 



First Principles 



Assimilate facts, 
not words 
only 



Repetition and 
the force of 
habit 



Vital union of 
head, hand, 
heart 



inspiration, and a compelling of the attention that gives a 
strong, active impulse to the feelings and emotions which 
prompt to action. 

AVe must, therefore, "assimilate facts, not words." If we do 
this, we make onr thinking structure and mental fabric at first 
hand. This cannot be done if we assimilate words alone; only 
partial ideas can be formed that do not yield complete mental 
structure. Ideas should grow in clearness, vividness, compre- 
hensiveness and accuracy by repetition. Expressions through 
the various sense channels should be related and associated in 
thought. Only thus can we get the appropriate impulse that 
prompts to action; only thus can we get that right action which 
is the fruit of a good education. 

But not only must we get information first hand, but we 
must register it organically by repetition. It must become a 
part of us, ready to be used when needed. "The very essence of 
knowledge is in possessing it and in being able to use it." 

I want to make clear, if I can, the union which exists 
between the head and the hand, also the union which exists 
between the head, the hand and the heart. You cannot rightly 
train the one without influencing the others. As Dr. Balliet 
says: '* All hand and eye work involves brain work, and the dis- 
tinction between hand work and brain work is not true." 

All the intellectual forces in the world will not enable 
me to know the texture of velvet or sandpaper until I touch 
them, then at once the knowledge is awakened in my brain 
through my hand and eye. I cannot rub my brain against the 
cloth or the paper, I do it through my hand and eye. I cannot 
know the shape of so simple a thing as a common coml) through 
the touch alone. I must see it before I can get the right con- 
ception of it, my touch not enabling me to feel the space between 
each tooth. 

Few persons get complete and correct ideas of the various 
senses as organized, how distinct and separate they are, and yet 
how mutually dependent and connected. I can feel with my 
coarse fingers through very fine skin the most delicate pulse; I 



Contact with Things 



19 



Illustration 14 




Wood Caiving Class, Public bchool of Industrial Ait 



can readily feel the blood bounding along, on some wrists I 
can even see it, yet with the tongue, that has such wonderful 
sense of touch for many things, I cannot get the slightest sensa- 
tion in this direction. This curious fact is mentioned by Sir 
Charles Bell, the discoverer of the functions of the nerves. The 
sense of touch must sometimes be helped by the sight. It is 
often difficult to touch certain parts of one's hand with the other 
without the aid of sight. 

Drawing" should be used as modes of thought expression 
quite as often and as much as speech and writing; for while 
pupils gain accuracy of perception, they also gain facility of 
expression, the terms interacting. Some one has said that the 
foundation of right reasoning is accurate perception. How 
seldom would pupils shirk work and how pleasant it would 
become if drawing were used as a mode of expression. Drawl- 
ing and art work would perforce redeem the sordid homes of 
many pupils by teaching a certain aniount of beauty and 



Various sense 
impressions 
organized into 
concrete ideas 



Drawing a 
mode of 
thought 
e.xpression 



20 



First Principles 



Book-bred 
people 
indisposed 
to action 



Importance 
of visual 
memory 



creating a desire for it, instead of leaving them to dissipate their 
energy by the reading of senseless novels and trashy papers. 
Drawing properly taught gives a disposition to do something. 
I do not by any means mean the kind of drawing given usually 
to-da3% but I mean drawing as a mode of thought expression 
that will be used as often as speech and writing. See what the 
product would be. See what the product is already in some of 
our schools where the children produce things of use and beauty 
for the adornment of their homes. 

The inspiration to perform deeds, to make movements, is 
so important that I cannot help calling attention to it 'contin- 
ually. Prof. Reuben Halleck says: " A' glance around us is 
nearly certain to discover some persons of marked deficiency in 
the world of action. They may like to learn and to continue 
absorbing knowledge, but they never make any worthy use of it. 
A visit to -the reading rooms of any library will enable us to find 
chronic, sponge-like absorbers of whatever is wTitten. Their 
very faces come to have a dreamy, relaxed expression. These 
persons generally fancy that they are going to do something 
soon. But the motor paralysis becomes more and more com- 
plete. Sometimes boys are allowed to bury themselves in book 
after book until action becomes extremely irksome to them. 
They love to absorl) ideas and to direct ah tlieir motor energy 
into dreaming or castle-building. In the case of the majority 
of people, motor action needs to be cultivated and to be directed 
to a definite end. It is not enough for one to form an idea of 
becoming a great man. He must do things to make him- 
self great." 

Read also Sir Francis Galpin on " Inquiries Into Human 
Faculty and Its Development:" " A visual image is the most 
perfect form of mental representation wherever the shape, 
position and relations of objects in space are concerned. It is 
of importance in every handicraft and profession where design 
is rec[uired. The Ijest workmen are those wdio visualize tlic 
whole of what they propose to do before they take a tool in their 
hands. Strategists, artists of all denominations, physicians who 



Contact with Things 



2i 




contrive new experiments, and in short all who do not follow 
routine, have need of it. The pleasure its use can alTord is 
immense. * * * * I believe that a serious study of the 
best method of developing and utilizing this faculty without 
prejudice to the practice of abstract thought in symbols is one 
of the many pressing desiderata in the yet unformed science of 
education." Prof. Halleck says further: " The great danger 
from castle-building and inveterate novel reading lies in divorc- 
ing ideas from action. The dreamer accustoms himself to 
become incapable of action." 

I am convinced that some of the present methods of educa- 
tion devitalize society. This is a question agitated among edu- 
cators. And it has been repeatedly suggested that mere book- 
learning- does not diminish crime, but that it increases crimes 
which involve the exercise of penetration and scholarly train- 
ing. A writer on this subject asked recently "Whether the too much 
short-sighted, illiterate or the crafty, educated man of evil ^^.^ '"^ ,, 

* • ■ -^ divorces ideas 

design w^as more dangerous to society." Education as at fro^n action 
present conducted will not develop the best potentialities in 
man's nature, will not enable him to bring into action the best 
that is in him. It is unreasonable to think that a knowledge 
of the " three R's " will do this. It must be something very 
much more. It must be a training to obtain habits of self- 
reliance and self-control and the golden fruit that results, — a 
training that will make people think and act more instead of 
less, that will open up the immense realms of ideas so few reach. 
Under the old method of education, the time being chiefly 
given to the study of words, — printed, written and spoken, — 

the printed and written words (symbols for ideas) are studied words studied 
. ■ at the expense 

at the expense of the ideas themselves. This leads to false or of ideas 

partial ideas and weak imagination. The vision is used too 

much, the pupil reading and writing at the expense of eyesight. 

The focal length is frequently shortened, and the too frequent 

use of fine finger movements required in writing cause, in 

many cases, nervousness and chorea. Some of the time given to 

writing should be given to larger movements, to hand and arm 



22 



First Principles 



All channels 
fcr improving 
the mind to be 
used 



Automatic 
obedience of 
the hand 



movements, finger co-ordinations coming- last. This alsc 
improves the writing. 

The too frequent use of the eye and ear in the old method? 
causes injury not only to the eye, but also to the verbal memory, 
^till worse is it that, as a result of these wrong methods, facility 
in other modes of expression and impression — such as drawing, 
painting, making, creating, etc. — becomes dormant or torpid 
through never having been used. 

Under the new methods of education, all the channels for 
impressing the mind of the child should 1)e used as much as pos- 
sible. Through the vision, the touch, muscular sense, hearing 
and speaking, impressions should be assiniilated, and through 
the same channels expression should be given to the ideas 
formed by creating and designing in diverse mediums. 

The soundest mental fabric is built by the perceptions that 
are the most accurate, and that call into play for their expres- 
sion the largest groups of associated and connected motor cen- 
ters; sense movements, incoming and outgoing. Thought and 
action are organically related, and education consists in firmly 
connecting them by repetition and habit. I am convinced that 
the so-called " thought studies " are valueless unless they are 
firmly locked in the mind by systematized impressions from 
things by action and that their value depends on the facility of 
expression which comes from accurate perception. 

Real manual training is the basis of all elementary educa- 
tion, because " the hand is the instrument of instruments and 
the mind is the form of forms " (Aristotle). Through the 
union of the brain and the hand, the products of nature have 
been made useful and valuable to man, and the work of the 
world has been accomplished. The hand should be made spon- 
taneously obedient to the mind; it should start forward instantly 
to obey the mind by the appropriate movement, as the tongue 
usually obeys. Book study and word study, preaching and 
praying, will not give this desired disposition to work and 
action. It must be the result of rational training and attention 
to its needs during the period of growth. 



Contact with Thing^s 23 

I firmly believe that we need to-day trained and skillful 
hands more than we need fluent tongues. Yet I also consider 
the training herein advocated the most essential for the getting 
of true eloquence of the tongue. Right ideas and right deeds are 
the primary inspiration for both. To depr^^'e a child of this train- 
ing is to prevent it from ever knowing the potentialities of its 
own nature; to prevent the child from knowing and loving Right manual 
nature as she should be loved — " the fountain and source of all give a love of 
education, science, art and religion."* To deprive the child of nature 
this training is to rear it in ignorance of its power to use hand 
and eye, a power that can be mastered at an early age; and a 
power the proper development of which aids so much toward 
practical success in the actual work of life, while also aiding the 
physical, mental and spiritual welfare of the individual. 



* Dr. G. Stanley Hall. 




CHAPTER IV 



Distinction Between 
the True and False 
in Manual Training; 



Different kinds 
of manual 
training 




HE OBJECT OF TflE NEW EDUCA- 
tion is to get ideas in a rational way at first 
hand, by using the activity of the child. 
It is difficult to decide which kinds of man- 
ual training are educational and which are 
not; which kind of manual training should 
be used and which not. Many manual 
exercises are valueless for training and 
education, and yet nearly all kinds of 
manual training educate to a degree. It 
is amusing to see the variety of opinions, 
even among intelligent people, as to w'hat 
kind of manual training is best for educational purposes. The 
manual training that should be given is that which develops in 
the individual: 

1. The art of building ideas by using most of the chan- 
nels of /77/pression and most of the means of r.rpression. 

2. Accurate perceptive powers. 

3. Facility of expression, not only in writing and verbally, 
but in a variety of ways through the hands. 

4. The strengthening of thought fal^ric and mind struc- 
ture, and capacity to use the same. 

(^4) 



True and False Manual Training; 25 

5. Most skill in the shortest space of time. 

6. Fitness for the greatest numl:)er of fundamental 
operations or pursuits. 

The power of expression in language, written or spoken, 

depends on accurate perception of things, on the power to form 

clear, definite ideas. Some kinds of manual training duh the Methods that 

prevent real 
power of accurate perception and limit the power of assmiilatmg manual 

new impressions. Some forms of so-called manual training are training 

so mechanical that they prevent co-ordinations that otherwise 

would have been made, consuming valuable time at the most 

vital period. Under this head I include such operations as 

paper cutting and folding, stick laying, sloyd, whittling, sawing, 

planing and joinery work and other merely mechanical 

movements. 

Nothing can be more absurd than the extravagant claims 
made for sloyd and several similar narrow mechanical methods. 
For instance: 

" That the knife is the only tool by means of which alone 

a finished object can be correctly made" " That it is the most stupid claims 

^ •' -^ for sloyd 

familiar and the least mechanical of tools." " That it necessi- 
tates greater concentration of thought and attention than any 
other tool."''' 

■'You can acquire a sensitiveness of touch and correspond- 
ing correctness of eye more effectively by the judicious use of 
sandpaper than in any other way." " The curve can only be 
cut by hand, and hence in other courses of woodwork curved 
forms are eschewed, except those that can be cut with a fret 
saw and drawn with an ' architect's curve.' ''f 

Such statements carry their own condemnation to any 
thinking person who really understands what true hand skill or 
manual training is. I have seen a sign painter so drunk that he 
could not stand, but had to sit, yet he was able to space out and 
block in letters with wonderful accuracy. I have seen a carriage 



* " Sloyd," Larson, Boston, 1S93. 

t " A Plea for Sloj'd," by T. G. Rooper, Reprinted from " Hand and Eye," 1S92. 



26 



First Principles 



Limited 
skill 




Utilitarian 

idea 

overdone 



painter in the same condition striping or painting long lines 
free hand on wheels, with marvelous precision. No real carver 
in wood ever uses anything but his eye, hand and chisel, no 
matter how elaborate the curves are. These operations are not 
the results of genius, they are simply the results of skill, with 
very few physical co-ordinations, and are such as all children 
can learn, without exception. 

The utilitarian idea has been considered too much. The 
" useful model " has been done to death, the articles made 
being of the nature of bread boards, salt boxes, towel racks, 
knife boxes, scoops, etc. Children have wonderful energy and 
curiosity, but a few months' familiarity with these household 
objects dulls their desire, and the work partakes of the nature 
of a task or drudgery. Of course children will take to any kind 
of tools, like ducks to water, to escape from the schoolroom 
routine, even if it is a " whittling class." But consider what they 
might have been doing in the way of real manual training and 
invention, and in the creation of beauty. 

The utilitarian idea is a valuable one, but it can readily be 
used to dwarf and stultify the child's energies. We can of 
course say that the child learns by " doing," but a great deal 
depends upon the character of its deeds. No feeble amateur 
with " knife work," no plain mechanic or carpenter with ham- 
mer and chisel, should dare to dally with the works and mental 
mechanism of a child. As well let an idiot repair a watch with 
a stick. The child, if left to its own impulse, will assuredly do 
something and find out something. 

Again, though sloyd may be good for Sweden, where the 
nights are long, the children require occupation, and the homes 
need the useful models (this being the original reason for sloyd, 
as an authority admits*), this country has very different needs 
for its youth. 

Sloyd is selected as an example of the work that is not true 
manual training, or the best kind of elementary work in 



* "Sloyd," Larson, Boston, 1S93. 



o 



Q 



o 



3 
or" 



CO 

o 

O 

o 



a. 




> 
H 

H 



28 



First Principles 



Sloyd selected 

for 

criticism 



Sloyd not real 
manual training 



Automatic 

dexterity 

desired 



hianual training, because it is considered in so nian}^ quarters to 
l)e superior. Sloyd is selected for criticism because it has been 
so thoroughly tried, and with many advantages in several cities, 
no expense having been spared and all possible facilities having 
been offered for its easy introduction. I consider sloyd perhaps 
the best of all the amateur woodworking systems, though I 
dispute the claim that there is any real drawing in it, unless 
mechanical draughting is considered to be drawing. It has 
been graded to fit children from the age of nine to fifteen years 
— six years of the most vital period of life. I have never seen 
a sloyd pupil or teacher who really had the elementary manual 
training required of some of our little children, as described in 
this book. 

It seems as though the chief idea in sloyd was to see how 
many different tools could be used and how many operations 
could be devised, little thought being given to the absolute 
needs of the eye, the hand and the mind as fundamental tools. 
" It includes seventy-two exercises with forty-five tools, in eight 
kinds of wood, and is now employed experimentally in several 
schools in Boston."* In line with paper cutting and 
folding, sloyd is occupation or " busy work," but is 
very slightly educational. Ten courses of sloyd work 
will not give the pupil the automatic facility desired, or 
even fundamental co-ordination of the motor centers of 
the hands. Throughout the entire course, instruments of 
precision, — the rule, the compass, the try-square, the gauge, — 
are used constantly. Therefore, the eye and the mind never get 
the unconscious automatic power of grasping magnitudes and 
proportions so essential in elementary training during the 
period of growth. 

Is it not a mistake, then, to think that facility in any one 
narrow mechanical direction is proper manual-training educa- 
tion? Should not one look with suspicion upon operations, 
such as paper cutting, stick laying, whittling, sloyd, etc., which 



* "Sloyd," Larson, Boston, 1S93, 



True and False Manual Training; 29 

produce such little results and consume so much precious time, 

and endeavor to find operations that will give fundamental skill 

that is valuable and that can be used in all occupations 

or trades? 

The graded courses and exercises in some other kinds of 

woodwork and drawing, extending over two or three vears, ^""^ 

' exercises 

with all exercises thought out, mapped out and charted before- consume 

hand, limit the pupils' capacitv for doino- original work, ens''gya"d 

- 7 inspiration 

designing or creative work, besides consuming the energy at 

the nascent period, the period of growth, that should be given 

to right manual training, which if not given at this period makes 

good results impossible at a later period. It is like waiting for 

the hand to become fully grown before undertaking violin 

playing or piano playing, or some other operation requiring 

skill, instead of allowing the hand to grow into the positions so 

much to be desired by skillful performers and workers, with the 

added penalty of the physical impossibility of getting into these 

positions after a certain time has elapsed. The same is also 

true with regard to the mental states: after a certain time has 

elapsed it is as impossible for the mind to invent, to design, to 

create spontaneously and automatically, as it is for the fingers or 

limbs to move skillfully, automatically and spontaneotisly. 

Of course I do not speak against proper woodworking 
operations as described in this book, — joinery, cabinet-making Proper wood 
and pattern-making. After fundamental manual training skill ol^erations 
has been acquired, these special trade operations are fit and 
proper in their right place, just as mechanical draughting, 
machine drawing, architectural drawing, are right and proper, 
after training in fundamental drawing. But it is wrong to 
select a few operations from any of these processes and give 
them to young children as proper elementary training. 

In many places drawing and manual training are separate 

and disassociated, courses of one being given separate and ^^""^' 

training a 
distinct from the other. In some cases the absurdity of this is mode of 

shown bv graded work for each, as thouHi thev were entirelv ^'''^"Sht 
_ ^ ^ & .' ., expression 

different studies and not related. It is as thougli drawing were 



30 



First Principles 




Ideas the 
basis of 
originality 



Art in 
handicraft 
very rare 



not a mode of thought expression, a means whereby ideas of the 
form and shape of things are recorded, and as if manual training 
were not a mode of thought expression in making and recording 
these forms and ideas l^y the hands. 

The catalogue of some schools will usually show under the 
head of manual training, for boys — wood turning, pattern mak- 
ing, foundry molding, forging, machine work and bench work 
in wood, mechanical drawing, draughting and designing; for 
girls — sewing, dressmaking, millinery and cooking. These are 
occupations or trades that are good in themselves, but are lim- 
ited in their capacity to train hand and eye to correctly carry 
out the dictates of the mind. 

Still more do the trade processes mentioned fail to develop 
the formation of thought structure by the working out of 
original ideas, which is the basis of true originality. Right 
methods of manual training, on the other hand, do bring about 
this union of thought and action, whereby the pupil is enabled 
to think of the right thing, at the right time, in the right place, 
and in the right way, and then to do it. 

I must not be understood here to speak against trades. 
I am in favor of every person having a pursuit and occupation, 
but I speak against the idea that possession of a trade process, 
or several trade processes, necessarily means true hand skill and 
right manual training, the power to make the hand obey the 
mind. The lack of this power explains the lack of real skill 
among so many workmen. The artist artisan is the exception, 
whereas he should be the rule. Art in handicraft is even more 
rare than handicraft itself. The methods laid down in this 
book, properly taught, supply the primary training that will 
give the skill, the hand facility, the co-ordination of hand, eye 
and brain, without which true handicraft can rarely be attained, 
even by many years of application. 

But the youth who has had this true manual training dur- 
ing his elementary schooling has already acquired more real 
skill of hand and eye than the average apprentice working dur- 
ing the like period at trade processes only, while the manual 



TfU6 and False Manual Training; 31 

trained youth is infinitely better off as regards mental develop- 
ment and character building. The manual trained youth is 
wonderfully fitted to acquire dexterity in trade processes. He training better 

assimilates them unconsciously, because his hand is already so than 

. apprenticeship 

thoroughly skilled. He wdl learn a trade and become a better 

workman in it in a few months than the ordinary apprentice 
would do in several years. 

" What is manual training?" To some it means an exer- 
cise for muscles, like gymnastics, and to others a process of 
making boys merely handy; others think it a way of teaching- 
trades to children, and nearlv all confound it with mechanical ^^chanical 

training not 

training and suppose a drill is necessary in sawing and planing, hand training 
chipping, filing, wood-turning, plumbing, etc., very few disas- 
sociating it from the use of machinery and from slow, tedious 
trade processes, or dream that it has anything to do with women 
and girls. 

Real manual training for the education of individuals can- 
not be obtained by mechanical pursuits similar to carpentry, 
plumbing, chipping, filing, etc. Real manual training is not a 
matter of simply doing different things; it is the intelligent 
selection of modes from the many operations and pursuits most 
suited to produce the effect desired. Swinging dumb-bells or manual 
pushing a plane or saw produces muscles, but does not recjuire training is 
the constant use of the intellect; the thinking powers are not 
increased in ratio. There are many exercises, then, more fit for 
our purpose. We must select for manual training purposes, 
work and methods that in addition to giving muscular activity, 
will exercise the peripheral nerves as tools of the senses. 

It includes all processes that train the muscles and the mind 
to work in harmony. In some of its applications it gives skill 
in planing boards and shaping iron; but just as legitimately does ^^^^ ^^^^ 
it make the hand cunning to dissect a nerve, to engrave an etch- work together 
ing or to finger a violin. And as no school of manual training- 
is obliged to teach anatomy, engraving and music, so no school 
of the kind must necessarily teach joinery or chipping- and filing. 
Those who believe that such processes are inseparable from the 



32 



First Principles 



Hand skill 
should precede 
trade training 



What are 
drawing and 
manual training 



use of saws and hammers have not looked all around the 
subject. 

The distinction between right manual training and trade 
processes is therefore clear. The one precedes the other, just 
as reading, writing and arithmetic precede accomplishments 
in the law or the ministry. Right here is a special field for true 
manual training that is bound to widen. The old plan of teach- 
ing the trades has been found wanting, in that it consumes 
much time and yet turns out workmen poor in craftsmanship 
and equally deficient in purpose. The new idea is to teach the 
trades in trade schools, or technical institutions, where the 
youth is carefully instructed in technical processes by experts. 
These trade schools are destined to increase in number and 
efficiency, as have the schools of law, medicine and theology. 
The youth who has had a proper course in manual training will 
acquire skill in the mechanical movements incident to any spe- 
cial trade in a fraction of the time that it requires for the novice 
who is untrained in facility of hand and eye. And this is true, 
whether the trade be taught in a technical school, or accjuired 
by haphazard in an ordinary apprenticeship. 

What are drawing and manual training when properly 
taught? 

They are modes of getting ideas first hand and giving ideas 
first hand. 

Thev bring about the union of thought and action which is 
so essential to the well-being of the individual. 

They are physiologically and psychologically sound. 

They are methods that train the powers of the instincts as 
they develop, that rightly educate these powers during their 
formative period, when most responsive to good or bad influ- 
ence. They unify and simplify the courses of study. 

They fit for the real work of life, for this training has a 
practical application in almost every vocation. 

Drawing and manual training, properly taught, do away 
with tradition and the traditional errors in education. They are 
modes of thought expression, just as speech and writing are 



True and False Manaal Training: 33 

modes of thought expression. Drawing is an universal tongue. 
It compels observation, reflection, perception and conception. 
It opens the mental eye, the eye of the understanding, that looks 
all around, up and down. It enables one to understand the 
message that is printed in every natural, normal thing, that is 
stamped Avith everlasting lines on each side of every leaf and Drawing 
blade of grass, that is twisted into the architecture of every makes mind 
shell, and that shines in the hues of every crystal — a message 
of beauty, of proportion, of grace and of fitness. Drawing 
makes mind. 

Drawing and manual training properly taught, as Hailman 
says, " render lucid the latent spiritualities of matter." They 
" enhance the utilities of life by clothing them with beauty," 
give power to do, power to enjoy. 

One objection that has rightly been made to the introduc- 
tion of the so-called manual training methods, especially by 
committees and superintendents, has been the great expense of 
the plant and equipments necessary. In large cities like Phila- 
delphia, only 95 cents per annum per pupil is now spent for 
all supplies in general school work — books, pencils, paper, pens, objections oa 
and sewing materials. In the light of this fact, it seems account of cosl 
absurd to pay for benches, sets of tools, etc., for so-called 
manual training, sums ranging from $15 to $30 per 
pupil, for a plant that can be used by a very limited 
number; the sloyd bench and tools alone costing sometimes 
as much as $30. 

The cost of the plant for the manual training herein set 

forth is very small. It w411 be noticed that but few and very 

Economy of 

inexpensive tools are specified for the work in drawing, model- right method 
ing and carving. In the Public School of Industrial Art, forty 
sets of carving tools, costing less than $5 each, and a few simple 
tools for use in modeling, with some models of natural and art 
forms, suffice for 1000 pupils. The supplies required are 
equally inexpensive, consisting mainly of chalk, pencils, ink and 
brushes, cheap paper, some clay, etc., costing very little per year 
per capita. This slight expenditure only is req,uired for four 



34 



First Principles 



Ease of 
application 
to large 
numbers 



Cost of 
elaborate 
plants should 
be spent on 
teachers 



different departments — drawing, designing, clay modeling and 
carving, not one only, as in other systems. 

Another advantage of these methods is to be found in their 
ease of application to classes of large numbers, without large 
expense; in fact, if necessary, the work in drawing, the drill 
work, the ambidextrous w^ork on blackboards, can all be done 
on slates and common manilla paper. A few sets of tools and 
appliances for modeling, and the clay, can be used in common 
by as many classes as can be brought in succession into the 
room. The same with the carving. Although this is not the 
best plan, it is inexpensive. 

Because of the economy of plant and supplies, this method 
of manual training is within reach of the smallest or poorest 
schools as well as those in wealthy communities. 

The saving in equipment over improper methods may 
well be invested in more teachers and better teachers. It 
is as wrong to employ an underpaid and overworked 
teacher (the two usually go together) in manual training 
instruction as in other branches. The tendency in school 
work has been too much toward extravagance in equipment 
and parsimony toward instructors. Fine buildings and costly 
apparatus never compensate for poor teachers. It is the teach- 
er's enthusiasm that must help to inspire the pupil; the teacher's 
intuition that must aid in discovering the pupil's individuality 
and help him to make the most of it; the teacher's human inter- 
est that must w^arm up a responsive interest in the pupil. These 
attributes of the teacher's personality can be supplied by neither 
books, apparatus nor buildings. The teacher has a mission to 
perform, he gives more of his very life to it than the worker in 
other vocations, and should be paid and esteemed accordingly. 



CHAPTER V 



Lack of Real 
Drawing; — 




ERE IT MAY BE FIT TO 
interject some of my experi- 
ences at the World's Fair at 
Chicago in 1893. For purposes 
of gaining' experience, as weh as 
of exhibiting our methods, we 
had a very large space in the 
educational department, adjoin- 
ing the most important of the technical schools and colleges. 
In this space I purposely had several " traps," one of which was 
a blackboard twenty feet long. My purpose in having this 
blackboard was to test adults and children of all conditions as to 
their capacity in certain directions. These tests are tabulated 
and systematized, and I discovered several interesting facts. 

Not more than four per cent, of the drawing teachers who 
were tested could draw, — I mean draw as a mode of expression, 
delineate what they thought. The rest depended on the model 
entirely. Amazement was expressed continually at their even 
being requested to draw something simply without a model. I Lack of real 

found only eight cases, out of several hundred, that had facility pow^'"^^ 
-''=>' ■> drawing 

of hand,— I mean the kind of elementary facility recjuired in 
this book from children. The tests were put to the teachers of 
a great many leading institutions, and to normal art school, 

(35) 



36 First Principles 

college and technical graduates. Almost invariably there was 
an absence of proficiency in organic drawing, and, considering 
the amount of time they had given to the work, their imitative 
drawing was feeble beyond the power of words to express. 

Approaching this question from the art side, the unpreju- 
diced observer who has any knowledge of art cannot fail to 
realize and be impressed with the lack of any tendency toward 
art training in most of the common schools of the country. 

, , ^ , There is a o-ulf between the teachers and the idea that has never 

Lack of art * 

training in been crossed, and the poverty of ideas on the part of teachers, 

'.ommon schools ■,,,■,■,, . ■ ■ r, -r ^.i • 

mtelligent m other respects, is amazmg. It seems as it nothing 

right was being done, and that ignorance ruled in these matters. 
This is not owing to any fault of the teachers. 

I am inclined to lay more blame upon the inventors of 
certain systems, who are never artists, who are backed by 
publishing firms, and whose chief idea is to sell books and mate- 
rials. Some of the schemes are so artificial as to require 
difi^erent sets of materials, copy books and plant for dilTerent 
grades, and constructions and technical terms have been so 
loaded upon these things that it requires a wise teacher and 
special training in the methods of the books alone to be able to 
understand their object and their purpose. This, fortunately. 

False systems ^.^^^^ ^^^^^ teachers endeavor to do. Some of the svstems claim 
formulated by -^ . ' _ 

publishing firms that their books and materials do away with the necessity of the 

teachers being al)le to draw, and that instruction can be 

imparted in an easy and ready fashion by means of these 

equipments. And so the game goes on at the expense of 

the children. 

Another of my chief reasons for writing this book is 

because I feel I. can be of service to a large proportion of the 

community represented by the superintendents of schools, also 

members of school committees, usually men and women of 

affairs, and others interested in the well-being of the schools in 

various towns and cities of the Union. The spirit of the age is 

compelling many, in spite of dislike, to advocate various kinds 

of manual training in the schools, and through lack of 







o 





38 



First Principles 



Sewing and 
cooking not 
real manual 
training 



Necessity ot 
systematic 
training of 
the senses 



knowledge (and it is a little iinreasonal)le to expect superin- 
tendents and others to be experts on these subjects) many 
experiments and methods of work are being tried that are fun- 
damentally ^Yrong, as will be proved by experience. For 
instance, various kinds of carpenter work, knife work, sloyd 
methods, paper cutting and paper folding are being incorpo- 
rated at much expense in schools as manual training. 

I do not ol3Ject to sewing and cooking. I consider them 
very important things. But for our purpose, they are not 
methods of artistic or manual training. I consider cooking one 
of the most important of all the arts, and I must be ranked as 
an advocate of both cooking and sewing, in the proper place. 
The proper place, however, is not that gained by usurping the 
manual training idea in education, because every thinking per- 
son will realize that cooking does not give exceptional dexterity 
and skill of hand in the arts, nor does sewing. If we must have 
special experts to teach cooking, sewing, writing, drawing, 
music, should it not be necessary for us to have experts to teach 
mathematics, history, geography, and the other studies? This 
seems to be the tendency, but it is not feasible in the schools. 
What is to prevent the ordinary teacher's having a certain 
amount of capacity in these directions? We certainly cannot 
call the teacher an educated person, or one able to teach, unless 
he or she has some ability in these directions. 

In the beginning, nothing is more important than the 
necessity of making the various senses alert and bright by con- 
stant and systematic use. The perceptive faculties should lie 
made accurate, the memory correct, the thinking and the will- 
ing powers strong and true by direct use on things. These 
capacities or faculties diminish very rapidly for lack of use, and 
at certain stages the organism refuses to work, and the best 
impressions possible are dull, fleeting and feeble, not being dis- 
tinct enough to form even nebulous ideas. Mental structure, 
thought fabric, must be made by children coming in contact, 
first hand, with things, receiving and assimilating all the pos- 
sible sense impressions, and making all the possible movements 



Lack of Real Drawing; 39 

cUkI reactions. No mere memorizing" of printed words, no 
juggiing- with ligures, no listening to a series of disconnected 
facts, will take the place of organic impressions permanently 
registered and systematized. 

This can best be done by means of the various modes of 
expression, when the hand, the eye and the mind are continu- 
ously and pleasurably storing up facts and making the required 
movements. The most perfect lessons can be received from the 
most common and the simplest things. Hence, a good teacher 
will make use of common and simple things. In the elementary Drawing 

stages of education, drawing and modeling, properlv taught trams the 
^ ° . . perceptive 

from the most interesting and simple forms, train the perceptive faculties 

faculties of children more than any other study, strengthen the 
memor}^, judgment and imagination, and arouse the instinctive 
investigation so powerful in all children. The idle curiosity of 
untrained children is the starting point for the good teacher. 
This curiosity must be cherished, intensified and stimulated 
until the habit of complete and willing attention is formed, the 
teacher gradually increasing the power of attentive application 
of the pupil until the stage of genuine study and hard work with 
the eye, hand and intelligence is obtained as a natural growth. 
Aristotle has said, " The hand is the instrimient of instru- 
ments and the mind is the form of forms." Surely we must 
give some real and fundamental training to the hand. This 
hand skill is to be acquired by ah, not because they are to work, 
but because they cannot afford to be without a training that Hand skill 

makes brain co-ordinations form sense connections, and there- makes 

. . ..... intelligence 

fore aids or makes mtelligence, reason, imagination and judg- 
ment in the shortest way. This hand skill is requisite, not 
necessarily to enable its possessors to become artists or artisans 
— though possessing art skill and capacity through esthetics is 
essential to complete culture, and this is the side usually to be 
considered— beauty acted. By manual training methods the 
person becomes able to deal and do with things if necessary, to 
be always ready to enjoy and appreciate nature, and grows self- 
reliant because confident of power. 




40 First Principles 

I should like to utter a protest against the vain experiments 
of certain psychologists who are at present misleading teachers 
in wrong methods of child study; who are simply dallying with 
things that are not essential. A great loss of energy is the 
result. For this they have been performing trifling experiments 
on troops of children, efforts that have no product. Why not 
study the acts of children for some useful and educational pur- 
pose, for some method that will tend to conserve their energy 
and health? I think that half the energy given to some of these 
things, spent on investigating the capacity of expression 
through the hand, would soon lead to golden fruit. The possi- 
bilities and potentialities in this direction are unlimited. Let 
this field be worked. 

In all my experience I have never yet found a teacher edu- 
cated by book methods able to draw. This seems an incredible 
statement, yet from my point of view it is correct. By drawing 
I mean thought expression and power to express ideas of all 
forms on surfaces and in things; not the feeble imitations of cer- 
tain methods, of conventional forms, with labored application, 
bit by bit, dot by dot, but to have organically the power at once 
to delineate balance, proportion, grace, beauty, fitness. By 
drawing I mean the vital union of thought and action that gives 
definite expression to individual thought through the hand, 
the power to reproduce mental images just as we express them 
by speech, after assimilating certain sense impressions; creating 
and designing nature anew. 

I have actually had pupils come to me who have recently 
wasted money and energy by trying to learn drawing by corre- 
spondence through the mails. Perhaps very soon some people 
will try to teach music, singing, for instance, the same way. 

The methods I advocate are no longer new. Ambidex- 
terity, psycho-physical co-ordinations, memory work, rotation 
of classes and other features peculiar to our course, have re- 
ceived the test of time and application to large numbers. 

Could any sane person walk around the ten acres of school 
exhibits a few years ago at Chicago, at the World's Fair, and be 



Lack of Real Drawingf 4J 

Illustration 20 




The Freeh;md Circle 
These teachers are practising large tree-hand movements in order to acquire facility 



satisfied with the work going on under the name of art, of 
drawing, of manual training? Could anyone for a moment 
think that it represented the work of individual child life, of 
growing organisms, each one alive? Did it not all seem fash- 
ioned from the same mean lack of thought exhibited by some 
plan or system maker? Did it not show, in its various simi- 
larity, an endless repetition of the same things — the hand of 
trade? Did it not show, from its very constant and feeble ring- 
ing of the changes on cubes, blocks, cones, prisms, defini- insufficiency of 

. '=' . '^ ' . . old method 

tions, — the iteration of terms, construction, representation and 

decoration, — shallow minds wading in a morass of second- 
hand thoughts, words and phrases; able to talk, parrot fashion, 
but not able to do; able to say, but not to feel; able to preach, 
but not to act? In short, to dogmatize. That is, literally, to as- 
sert with undue confidence and to advance with arrogance. Did 
it not show, from end to end, the commercial element, the 
spirit of greed for money at the expense of mind? There were 



42 



First Principles 



only a few green oases in the desert, represented by some 
schools, where I actnally fonnd real autumn leaves and fruit 
forms drawn and colored by the pupils. Verily, the sacrifice was 
awful. Hundreds of miles of paper with " soft gray lines " rep- 
resented thousands of minds distorted and drawn out of shape. 
I state without fear of contradiction that no one who is 
unable to draw should attempt to teach drawing, yet without 

Teachers must Qj-^g exception I have found the presenters and representers of 
be able to draw , , . . 

all commercial systems unaljle to draw, and, what is far more 

saddening, none of their pupils could. 

I protest once more against anyone's teaching drawing 
who is unable to draw. It seems that many of the supervisors 
and so-called experts on this subject throughout the country, 
with very few exceptions, are unable to draw. Most of them 
have worked a few years at some art school, chiefly at imitative 
work. They have made a few light-and-shade drawings and 
have studied perhaps a little perspective. They have painted a 
fev/ flowers and made a few carpet designs. And then they 
start out on their career with some " system." The children are 
expected to perform a series of graded exercises, usually of 
" geometric forms " and " objects based upon geometric 
forms." They are compelled to work from type forms until 
they are sick of them, and then they are expected to see resem- 
blance in the most diverse objects to these type forms. 

It seems to me that this is fundamentally wrong. We 
should teach the children to look for dissimilarities. We should 
make their observation acute to notice how different and unlike 
things are to each other. It is very stupid to me to make chil- 
dren labor at a cone, for instance, and then give them the wrong 
idea that a lamp chimney and a carrot, ink bottle, etc., are based 
on this cone, because there is a very slight resemblance. To 
me they never look alike, and I have never yet found a bright 
child who will begin to associate them in the mind voluntarily. 
Remember, I believe in type forms and in geometric forms in 
the right place, but they are abstractions. Children should have 
nothing to do with abstractions in the beginning. Before they 



Supervisors 
should be able 
to draw 



Misuse of 
type forms 



Lack of Real Drawings 43 

are given any idea of the type forms, their minds should 
be stored with a series of the natural forms, from which we 
receive the idea of the type. When a child has become familiar 
with apples and marbles, soap bubbles and other round things, 
then the abstract idea of the sphere may be grasped. 

It may seem a little unfair that I should attack the methods 
of the so-called drawing teachers in the schools, but what are we 
to do when we find the great lights, or authorities, so-called, 
giving utterance to statements like the following. In the 
report of the proceedings of the National Educational Associa- 
tion for 1896, on Page 693, will be found such a statement as 
this, not by an ordinary teacher or a teacher of drawing, but by 
the superintendent of drawing for a whole city — a teacher of 
teachers: " There is such a thing as a child having too much 
candy, and there is such a thing as a child having too much Foolish 

beautv. He may become so accustomed to it that he will not statements by 

^ , , , so-called 

appreciate it." I leave the above to speak for itself. teachers 

Again, we find in the same book, on Page 700, not signed 
by one person only, but by half a dozen, including a college 
president, a director of one of the chief institutions in the coun- 
try and several other very prominent people, the following: 
" The use of colored papers is the best means now available of 
presenting and applying standards or ideals of color, scales of 
these standards, and combinations of different scales." I protest 
against stained papers of any kind. I have never yet seen natural 

colors on the papers used for this purpose in schools. They ,,. ,„... „^ ,,„ 

are artificial and crude in all respects. What is the matter with 
the real colors of nature, as exhibited in flowers, shells, stones, 
butterflies, insects, feathers, birds, etc? -' ' ~ 

Again, the same book, Page 698: " Models of the pure 
geometric types of form, which underlie all the manifold variety 
of form in both nature and art, should be studied in connection 
with these selected objects in order that pupils may learn to see 
how the type forms are the basis of all other torms. Having 
in mind accurate and distinct concepts of the types, the pupil 
can more easilv understand their numberless modifications. 



44 



First Principles 



Absurdities of 

commercial 

systems 



Artificial forms, 
stained papers, 
etc., useless 



The art part 
vital 



Having a clear understanding of their modifications, he can 
best express his ideas of them by drawing." I have personahy 
shown this complex sentence to many artists. I have not 
heard one agree with it. I have yet to know any artist of 
importance who was ever educated in this way. 

Another sentence is as follows: "The exercises should 
also be distinctly classified so as to cover the three great divi- 
sions of all art work, namely: Representation, or the appearance 
of form, decoration or the ornamentation of form, and construc- 
tion or the facts of form." This sentence, perhaps, will be the 
key to a great many of the absurdities indicated above. It simply 
shows to one who has studied the whole question carefully, and 
without prejudice, that none of these so-called authorities can 
themselves draw, or have the beginning of an idea about draw- 
ing, but that they have a very complete idea of an artificial sys- 
tem which has been classified and systematized until drawing 
and art have absolutely disappeared from it. I venture to assert 
that not one of them ever painted a picture or modeled a statue. 

How absurd it is then that they should stand up as authori- 
ties on the subject and mislead people. It has been done, how- 
ever, for a purpose, and that purpose is to sell various- mate- 
rials, — series of books for each grade, series of artificial forms in 
wood graded, pencils for a variety of purposes, stained papers, 
geometric shapes, etc. This has gone on until even the cost of 
these things makes the work impossible in many schools and 
frightens the simple-minded by the seeming complexity and 
difiiculty of a very simple subject. Indeed, drawing requires 
less plant and arrangements than any other branch in the school 
curriculum, because dravving can be done with only .a piece of 
paper and pencil, or a slate and pencil, if necessary. 

We must see that art comes into ev'ery step of the elemen- 
tary or fundamental work, using the word in its fullest meaning 
— ars, artis, — " skill in joining and fitting," " the employment 
of means to accomplish some desired end," " human labor 
regulated by design." In every stag-e of the work the instru- 
mentalities of the pupils should be set directlv at work, the 



Lack of Real Drawing 45 

hands, the eyes and the head. There should be no instruments 
of precision, no copy books to save labor or avoid skill. The 
art part of a great deal of work is the part that cannot be meas- 
ured, weighed or marked, — it is the vital part. Science compels 
observation and reflection, but does not always result in action. 
Art compels observation, reflection and action, and makes them 
mutually dependent on each other. " Science is the knowing, 
art is the doing." It, therefore, makes vital and alive the con- 
nection that should exist between the inner thought and the 
outw'ard action. 

I pin my faith to the superintendents, if we are going to 
better the schools in this direction, not to the crank artists, art 
directors and supervisors. Superintendents are usually men of 

affairs, teachers who have been selected for fitness and Art and manual 

training 
merit, men who have been taught by experience. They will teachers should 

have to realize, however, that, just as there are many ways of ^®®^^™"^<^ 
teaching language, reading, geography and arithmetic, some 
good and some bad, so there are many methods that go by the 
name of art and of manual training and drawing. They will 
have to demand that their art directors, supervisors and teach- 
ers should be able to draw. I do not mean that they should 
simply take their word for it, or be satisfied with a portfolio of 
drawings of objects, casts, cubes, blocks, or a certificate of this 
or that normal art school or mill, but, being rational men, that 
they should see that the teacher can draw, knowing that draw- 
ing is a mode of thought expression, not simply a famiharity 
with certain graded steps of a traditional or dogmatical thought- 
less plan. They should say: " Here is paper; express youiself; 
draw a leaf, a house, a cat, a scroll, anything," Performance 
should be the great test in our business, not words and asser- 
tions. I have actually known some teachers, when confronted 
in this way, to say: " Where is the model for me to copy?" 
Surely these are not teachers, but imitators, copyists. 

Critics may consider that the author has devoted too much 
attention to the decorative and conventional forms, to drill and 
designing. He considers, however, that in a book of this 




46 



First Principles 



Drill essential 
in the 
elementary 
Stages 



character, written to help large numbers of workers in various 
directions, the industrial art features and their applications 
should be amplified especially. But this is not done at the 
expense of any real art study. It is really the elementary part 
of the truest kind of art work. The drawing from models and 
casts, and the other usual " fine art " studies, are lightly 
touched upon, because they are already well known. The 
aim has been, also, to consider as much as possible the largf^ 
number of pupils who do not become artists, but who do require 
the skill and art knowledge essential for success in the various 
pursuits of life. 




JDesigDjmg, Ambidextrous Work 



CHAPTER VI 



Right and Left Hand 
Work, Ambidextrous 
Work 




HE RESULT OF THIS WORK HAS 
only to be seen for one to become im- 
pressed with its value as a medium for the 
education of the individual. The most 
skeptical are convinced by the perfect 
results produced, the simplicity of work, 
the almost instant balance and symmetry, 
and the visible development in the direc- 
tions most to be desired in the education 
of the hand, the eye and the mind. 

Improvement is also made in other 
directions. The co-ordinating of one set 
of muscles invariably influences the rest. 

The hands, the eyes and the mind are Sympathetic 

1 , 1 , , , influence 

exercised to a much greater degree than 

is possible when using them only partially. 
Hence, a more symmetrical whole is produced. The pupils 
stand better, hold their heads more erect and level, — in a word, 
they have more understanding. 

If it can be done with the right hand, why do it with the 
left? some say. Why waste time that might be given to some- 
thing else? These questions are natural, and at first seem right, 
but a little thought makes one realize that in many trades, espe- 
cially the ones requiring skill of hand, both hands need to be 

(47) 



48 



First Principles 



Reasons for 

ambidextrous 

work 



Not 
unreasonable 



used, and the more skilled the left hand the better the work- 
man. Again, some artists who first hear of our ambidextrous 
work sometimes think it absurd. They do not realize that we 
do not attempt to sketch or paint with the left hand, an J that it 
is mainly for its physiological and educational value that we 
train it. 

The reason we do ambidextrous work is for the physical 
co-ordinations acquired. Biology teaches that the more the 
senses are co-ordinated to work in harmony in the individual, 
the better. If I work with the right hand, I use the left side of 
the brain; if I employ the left hand, I use the right side of the 
brain. . In truth, I exercise some special region or center of the 
brain in every conscious movement I make, and in every change 
of movement I bring into play some other center. If, by per- 
forming any such action with energy and precision, I aid in the 
development of the accordant center, I am improving the cere- 
bral organism, building for myself a better and more symmet- 
rical mental fabric. 

Does this seem unreasonable? We use both feet, both eyes, 
both ears. I am firmly convinced that the better and firmer 
the union of each hand with its proper hemisphere of the brain, 
and the more facility we have of working each together, 
and also independently, the better the brain and mind and the 
better the thought, the reason and the imagination will be. 
The results of my method have fully demonstrated this fact, as 
the teachings of modern science, and especially of psychology, 
have fully established the truth of this contention.* 



* " Every impression of sense upon the brain, every current of molecular activity from one 
to another part of the brain, every cerebral reaction which passes into muscular movement, 
leaves behind it some modification of the nerve elements concerned in its function, some after- 
effect, or, so to speak, memory of itself in them which renders its reproduction an easier matter, 
the more easy the more often it has been repeated, and makes it impossible to say that, however 
trivial, it shall not under some circumstances recur. Let the excitation take place in one of two 
nerve cells lying side by side, and between which there ^vas not any original specific difference; 
there will be ever afterward a difference betAveen them. This physiological process, whatever 
be its nature, is the physical basis of memory, and it is the foundation of the development of all 
our mental functions." — [Maudsley, Physiology of the Mind, page 37. 



H 2 



5° 

g I ^ 

!' ^ CO 



" o 

5' cl, 



s- r- 



P 3 




r 



50 



First Principles 



Mind building 



Abstract worl-c 
wrong 



I am convinced that in proper manual training move- 
ments — exercises that make a firm,,wen knit union between the 
hand and the brain, making the hand (and each hand) obey the 
mind independently, we are producing new mental conditions, 
or physical structure in the brain. The brain has growth in the 
beginning for a certain period, and arrives at a certain size dur- 
ing youth. Afterward it increases in complexity and structure. 
All recent studies of the cerebrum point to the fact that our 
intelligence is associated with a union of brain cells one with 
another, and the more experience we gain through the various 
senses, the greater will be the structural union and complexity 
of the brain cells. 

It seems wrong to see children compelled continually to 
mem.orize and to draw on the reason, the fancy and the imagina- 
tion, before they have well developed centers or brain cells with 
which to think, reason and ideate. I know for a fact that the 
energy of many children is consumed and exhausted by the use 
of abstract thought work too early in life, instead of being- 
conserved by proper training. 

I claim better results from the right hand, when the left is 
worked also, than from the right hand working alone, in the 
same space of time, in almost any kind of hand work. In 240 
trades or crafts the workman employs both hands quite freely, 
and in certain occupations, like carving, engraving, modeling 
and chasing, the left hand works as much as the right. Mus- 
cular co-ordinations and facility with the left hand as well as 
the right are therefore very important and of large practical 
application, apart from the physiological and mental value of 
ambidexterity. 

Indeed, the old education neglected both hands, not the 
Old methods of right hand only. Yet who shall now say that the education of 
these marvellous portions of the anatomy shoidd be longer 
neglected? Truly says Sir Charles Bell, in " The Hand " 
(Page 134): 

" The human hand is so wonderfully formed, so beautifully 
shaped, it has so fine a sensibility; that sensibility governs its 



education 
neglect both 
hands 



Ambidextfous Work 



5f 



motions so correctly, every effort of the will is answered so 
instantaneously, as if the hand itself were the seat of that will. 
Its actions are so powerful, so free and yet so delicate, as if it 
possessed a quality of instinct in itself, that there is no thought 
of its complexity as an instrument or of the relations which 
make it subservient to the mind. We use it as we draw our 
breath, unconsciously, and have lost all recollection of the feeble 
efforts whereby it has been perfected." 

Surely, then, the new education must not make the mistake 
of training but one hand — one only of these two instruments of 
power and action. 

Meissonier also said: " It would be a great advantage to 
be ambidextrous, — children ought to be taught this habit." 
Illustration 25 




Freehand Original Designs, Public Scliool, Germantown 
All the children in the room draw at intervals on the blackboard making original designs. The pupils at the 
benches work on paper from objects and in color, sometimes at designing, sometimes at natural forms. 



CHAPTER Vn 

Drawing Correlated 
with Other Studies 




Modeling Fruit Forms from 
Nature 



HE LESSONS IN THE Suc- 
ceeding books of this work have 

been evoh'ed froiii the results of years 

Correlate the .' *"'"' ''- ^ r ■ • i • i 

, . .,, . -•, ».^®ic^r <^'i experience m working- by a num- 

drawing with . ^^-I'd^/^ '"'-^^^^^ 

other school *.^^^^^'^^^^^S ^^^^ ^^ different methods. They have 

'^ '" ^■'" been arrived at after much experiment, 

on account of their suitability for the 

\oung and the old, and the fact that 

very little plant is required. From the 

very beginning, the object has been to 

co-ordinate or correlate the drawing 

with all the other school work. One 

of the greatest troubles with drawing 

by the old method is that it seems to 

be something entirely apart from the 

other studies, a mere accomplishment, something for the select 

few, the ones who display a certain amount of talent. 

Bad use of art This is wrong. Drawing and manual training are especially 

work in schools suited for backward and dull pupils; they are the very ones who 

most need its training. 

Drawing can very readily be made one of the most vital of 
studies, one of the most important. It is the study on which 
half the drudgery and tiresome work of the school can be placed, 

(5--) 



Drawing Correlated With Other Studies 53 

It is the study that makes pleasing and interesting to them- 
selves the work of the pupils. Drawing and manual training, 
above all other work studies, will enable the child to work out 
its own salvation, in the fact that they form a disposition to 
action and allow the child to make the energetic movements 
that are so good and proper for its well-being. 

Drawing in the past, to many teachers and children, has 
consisted of mere imitative work from a few type forms, — mean- 
ingless blocks. It has not been made a vital and connected 

part of their other studies. If children are to know things, to Compels love 

of nature 
gain l<;nowledge (and their coming to school is for this purpose), 

I know of nothing that will take the place of the right kind of 
instruction in drawing, as it compels their attention to things, 
if properly presented. 

Take, for instance, a rural school, where the children get 
a little reading, writing and arithmetic, in homeopathic doses, 
and very little of anything else. See what glorious possibilities 
and potentialities there are here, if the teacher has any idea of 
drawing as it should be taught. Right at the door is the whole 
field of nature^plants, flowers, insects, animals, stones, fruits, 
vegetables, can be procured without any trouble. The children 
are delighted to bring almost anything in the way of models of 
this kind. If they are near the seashore, the boys can get 
endless forms of life in the way of seaweeds, shells, crabs, fish, 
etc. If in the mountains, the same can be done with dif- 
ferent kinds of plants, weeds, stones, birds, fish, insects, etc. 
These forms can be drawn, and the reading, writing, arithmetic, 
spelling, composition, punctuation, and other studies hung on as The beginning 
incidentals. The children wdll be fascinated and inspired at first °^ wisdom 
hand. They will take an added interest in their work, especially 
when the doors of their minds are opened and the things of 
which they see so much and know so little are transformed 
for them. 

Farmers' children and others should know all about the birds, 
bugs, caterpillars, flies, spiders, weeds, plants, the flowers and 
common growths of their environment, and thus have matter 



54 



First Principles 




Knowledge of 
things of first 
importance in 
education 



Good pictures 
improve taste 



that will be of value and an aid to them in their future life. This 
is very much better than cramming them with disconnected facts 
of history of far-off countries, incidents in the lives of kings and 
statesmen, that are not of much value. Of course the young 
should become as completely educated as possible, but if they 
are to have one thing or the other, let them get, first of all, 
direct knowledge of their own environment. 

There is no reason, even in city schools, why similar work 
should not be done; though the country child has far greater 
advantages in the way of studying natural forms, the city child 
has many compensating advantages. Nearly all children 
can get from their homes and from their friends any of the 
simple common things in the way of leaves, plants, shells, ani- 
mals, etc., that are the fundamentals of study, and with which 
we should first fill the mind of the child before we attempt to 
give the higher thought studies. 

I can see already this change coming in m^any places, 
although so far it is mostly in the way of the introduction of 
things that have utilitarian value alone, — trades similar to car- 
penter work, cooking and sewing, which to me simply consume 
the valuable time of the children without educating them. I 
think the time is near at hand when the true idea will be 
received. Institutions like the Drexel Institute, the Armour 
Institute, the Pratt Institute, are simply, in my mind, protests 
against the old methods of education. They are schools where 
the pupils learn by doing, and though in some cases, trades are 
taught instead of real education being given, I think the latter 
will be the next step. 

No one can see how newspapers and books are changing, 
with their endless pictures and illustrations; no one can see the 
improvements and means of getting better pictures in all direc- 
tions, without realizing that this must have a great influence on 
the education of those to come. The same is true with regard to 
smooth roads, electric lights, the bicycle, etc., all influences that 
are tending to make life easier and better. Some of the papers 
and magazines to-day are real works of art. Continually they 



56 



First Principles 



Futility of 

present 

methods 



Drawing a 
mode of 
thought 
expression 



Meissonier 



are pouring out on the multitude streams of visual information 
that must have an influence. The school is bound to keep in 
line with these things. Better methods and better text-books 
and appliances must be used. The old methods Jiaz'c to change, 
and the teachers, too. 

Appliances in the schoolroom that have been used for 20 
years are still being used the wrong way, and at the wrong time, 
such as copy books and drawing models, imitations of copies, 
etc. In some schools, systems of geometric forms (wooden 
ones) are used during the entire eight years of the school 
life of the child by teachers who have never been able to 
draw from the beginning. 

Can anyone fail to realize how tired and weary the children 
must become of these things, and especially when they do not 
find any vital connection in them with their work? We cannot 
expect the children to do this when we find the teachers unable. 
All artists know how unreasonable it is to expect a product in 
drawing from children if they receive only a few homeopathic 
doses of " construction," " representation " and " decoration " 
a few minutes a week. The artist knows how many hours of 
study and actual delineation must be given before even an 
ordinary amount of capacit}^ is achieved. 

The wdiole subject, however, assumes a very difTerent 
aspect when drawing is used as one of the chief instruments of 
impressing the organism through all its various sense channels, 
and is also used as one of the chief instruments of imparting 
knowledge in all its various branches, being a mode of thought 
expression, just as speech and writing are modes of thought 
expression. 

Meissonier thought drawing one of the bases of primary 
education, and said: "To what heights might their intelli- 
gences be trained by simply teaching them to see. I would 
have drawing made the basis of education in all schools. It is 
the only language that can express all things. An outline, 
even if ill-shaped, conveys a more exact idea of a thing than the 
most harmonious sentences in the v/orld. Drawing is absolute 
truth, and the language of truth should be taught everywhere." 



Drawing: Correlated With Other Studies 



57 



I like my pupils and teachers to understand the distinction 
there is between sketching from nature and designing. In the 
one case we put down facts, and in the other, ideas. There is 
a tendency for many students to sketch only from nature. \\& Growth of 
get our ideas by thinking as well. More time should be given, ^^^^^ 
then, to dwelling on our impressions and to systematic mental 
reproduction, and to giving expression to these ideas constantly 
by designing and creative work.* 

To get good art work we must have good ideas, and they 

must be tangible and concrete ideas that we can instantly revive 

at will — that w^ill recur automatically to the mind v^^hen needed. 

We can revive impressions of things, and we ought to be able 

to revive ideas in the mind. They must l^e placed there first. ,, 

^ Ideas must be 

They must be firmly locked into the mental fabric by the sys- locked into 
tematic performance of deeds, not only once, but many times. 
The more experience I have the more I can embody in these 
ideas; facility of expression giving accuracy of perception. The 
more I know of history, countries, religions, governments, 
climates, habits, the more of value I can put in my work. 

We must take in things, assimilate them and form ideas, 
and then we will have an outcome. The more we practice this, 
the more facility we will find ourselves obtaining. It is always 
possible to revive ideas in the mind and to make mental move- 
ments and co-ordinations. The more we do this, the more 
vatal force we will have, the more deeply we will realize and 
appreciate things. We wall begin to understand what inspira- 
tion means. 



*"The idea in fact is organized as a separate mental existence in the cerebral convolu- 
tions, being for us when so organized to all intents and purposes the object, and may be aroused 
into independent activity. Every idea is thus representative, the abstract of many sensations, 
comprising implicitly more than it displays explicitly; in it the essential is embodied, the unes- 
sential suppressed or rejected; it is not the idea of any particular object or event, but the idea of 
every object or event of a particular kind; it is fundamentally a generalization or induction. We 
may justly say, then, that the ideational nerve centers idealize or ideate our sensory perceptions; 
the process of ideation, like other processes of organic evolution, being one of progressive 
differentiation and integration, — of discrimination of the unlike and assimilation of the like." 
[Maudsley, Physiology of Mind, Page 272. 



CHAPTER Vm 

Nature Studies — Right 
Methods 



Looking at 
things not 
enough 





Boy makinaf large chart 
freehand with brush and 
ink on manila paper. All 
the common names and 
technical terms are lettered 
by him on each part. 



N EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY 
has stated: "The only way to teach 
nature study is with no course laid out, 
to luring in whatever may be handy and 
to set the pupils to looking at it. The 
pupils do the v.'ork. They see the thing 
and explain its structure and its mean- 
ing. The exercise should not be too 
long, not to exceed fifteen minutes at 
any time. And above all, the pupils 
should never look upon it as a recita- 
tion, and there should never be an 
examination. It should come as a rest 
exercise, whenever the pupils become restless. Ten minutes a 
day for one term of a short, sharp and spicy observation upon 
plants, for example, is worth more than a whole text-book of 
botany." 

I seriously doubt if this is the way. I cjuestion if they see 
the thing simply by '' looking " at it. I cjuestion if in this way 
they can comprehend and explain its structure and its meaning. 
Many teachers have been following this method for years, and 
even adults in normal schools have been doing it for a series of 
years, but I fail to find much product or result. If simply looking 
at things will accomplish this, why is it that so few people, 

(58) 




<-..■# 



Nature Studies 59 

suddenly asked whose head is on a two-cent stamp, can answer 
correctly? Are not stamps seen and handled often? I have tried 
this and other experiments on thousands of teachers for many 
years, and I know people do not learn or see by simply looking. 
I find that even looking at and handling things all their 
lives will not enable some people to know the shape of the most 
familiar forms. Take a common spoon, for instance. Not one 

in fifty can give a sure answer as 

to how its handle curves, up or Familiarity 

'^" ^*^ down. I do not mean that they "*^^ , , 

' knowledge 

should be able to make a drawing 
— of it, but that they should be able 

to know actually how it bends. 
(See diagram.) From the concept that they have, or have 
had, of the spoon in their minds for perhaps years, not one 
among fifty will answer this correctly. Try it and see. The 
same is true of the shape of the most familiar tools. I can take 
people and prove that they do not begin to know the shape of 
their own most familiar hammer or saw handle. 

Capacity of this kind, accurate observation, can only be 
made automatic and useful l)y art methods, by practical esthet- j^ysj-j^e 
ics, by organized impressions repeatedly and systematically repeated ^ 
performed until the mind takes in the desired percepts and can 
form the concepts. 

But giving the sensation through one or two channels is 
simply useless. All experience teaches this; it is better to make 
a little knowledge vital and organic by the use of the conscious 
activities of the child. The child's motor centers must be 
trained by systematic exercise to respond instinctively to the 
stimulation of sio-ht and touch, bv a product that compels the Let study have 

^ =' J ./ r i permanent 

exercise of skillful manipulation. It is this performance and results, 
systematic repetition that make the result permanent and valu- 
able. It has actually been found that children have been made 
more stupid, dull, tired and restless by too much looking and 
handling, without using the spontaneous activities of several 
other motor senses. 



60 



First Principles 




We must 
appreciate the 
beauty of 
nature 



Permanent 
organic 
impressions 
must be made 



I maintain that through art methods tangible results can 
be obtained that cause the child to take pains, that arouse its 
emotions to a point of love and sympathy on account of the 
troul^le required to o])tain some wished-for product. However 
trifling or poor this product is, the thing desired, and for which 
we must scheme, is to cause the child to re-create, as the work 
of its hands and l^rain and effort, the beauty, proportion, 
fitness, grace, etc., embodied in the forms studied. The child 
loves its product for the trouble it has caused. 

This is w^ell illustrated by the habit most children have of 
saving and keeping as precious, trifling odds and ends that they 
have made, and that seem to have value to them because they 
have thought over them and worried over them. Experience 
teaches that formal collections of butterflies, pressed leaves, 
eggs, etc., are much less cherished, and usually find their way 
to the waste basket at some period, only a faint and feeble 
memory being retained of their forms, one that is entirely use- 
less so far as regards a vital love of nature and the enabling one 
to enter into its beauties. We will not get love for nature unless 
we can appreciate the beauty of nature. This must be culti- 
vated. No doubt there are some impressions, some faint traces 
of these things left in the adult organism, but not sufficient to 
arouse impulses to action or energetic moving emotion; not 
enough to inspire the motor reactions that end in deeds, though 
often enough to result in thinking and dreaming, and some- 
times wishing. 

Yet, we can have a right return from nature study if we 
make the right use of our opportunities. All the rambles, 
walks and talks of ten teachers, all the looking and handling, are 
useless for the purpose of nature teaching, unless the impres- 
sions and information are made organic by the performance of 
work that compels systematic reaction of the motor centers to 
yield a product, this being the outward, concrete sign of the 
internal structure or thought fabric. So much of the one is 
shown by so much of the other. 

There is something dense in the mind of the average child 



Nature Studies 



61 



Illustration 33 





Drawing from Nature 



that must be overcome by this systematic work. There is a 
mental inertia, if yon will, or what might be called an infirmity 
of purpose, that has to be conquered before the union of thought 
and action can be made automatic and complete. Hence,, mere 
looking at and handling objects will not give the best results 
desired in nature study. And, in proof of this, we find that most 
school work of this kind does not produce the expected results. 
But the methods pointed out in this work do produce the 
desired results in every case. The children get a loving recog- 
nition of things, and this arouses that energetic disposition to 
perform appropriate actions which is the natural state of the 
alert and active normal child. 

It is dreadful to see children, as they grow up through the 
primary, secondary and grammar grades of a school into the 
high school, becoming more restless and more indifferent 



62 



First Principles 



Effect on health 
of improper 
methods 




to SO many of the essentialities, when, if properly trained, they 
should have become more energetic, and disposed to carry on 
their work with the same energy they make use of in their play 
and amusement. I am afraid the element of " fun," with a 
number of other valuable fundamentals, is gradually crushed 
out by existing school methods. 

No truthful and thoughtful teacher can help but see also 
that many physical ills result from the present methods of train- 
ing. Many children that are chubby and healthy and usually 
have line color on entering school, are pale, narrow-chested, 
feeble, spectacled, cadaverous and pimple faced, when they have 
finished the school course. By damaging the body we, in a 
measure, damage the mind. After all, the body is the chief 
fabric. To this our best care should be given. The body, its 
movements, and its productions, are the outward fruits or signs 
of the " inner temple." 

The idle curiosity excited by things must be cherished and 
nourished until it becomes attention. Inspiration from things 
means energy, • — ; physical, mental and spiritual energy. We 
must assimilate and accumulate this energy. If God speaks at 
all (and who doubts it?), He speaks through His works. " There 
are tongues in trees, books in the running brook, sermons in 
stones, and good in everything " (Shakespeare). Ought we 
not to understand these tongues, read these books and under- 
stand these sermons? Ought we not to get the good from 
everything? We must, as Emerson says, " Bend to the persua- 
sion flowing to us from every normal thing entreating us to be 
its tongue to the heart of man, to teach a besotted world how 
passing fair is wisdom." 

We must make our children realize the divinity that is 

planted in things. There is a great desire and tendency in some 
Beauty and ,-r i i -i i i i i ' 01 i i 

mystery of quarters to lift the children above the commonplace. Should 

common things ^^^ j^qj-^ rather, make them so familiar with things that even the 
mud and dirt and weeds will seem filled with beauty and mys- 
tery? Should we not open their mental eyes, the eye of the 
understanding, to the beauty and splendor of the smallest 



Nature Studies 63 

created atom? Make them realize the force that is in every 
common thing, that holds together each flower and leaf and 
stone; make them realize that " matter and spirit are two sides 
of one fact." 

We are compelled to be with matter in this world. We Divine energy 
cannot lift the children above the commonplace. Instead, we ^ matter 
should thrust their heads well into it until they recognize their 
Mother Nature. There is an irresistible impulse, which is like 
the tug of gravity, that forces us sometimes against our will, to 
be close to facts and things. Let us be obedient and bend to 
the divine energy. Then we can gradually take in the idea, so 
beautifully expressed by Bishop Keene, that " matter is the 
stairway by which the soul mounts to God." 

The desire for nature study is constantly increasing and is 
beginning to be appreciated among teachers. It is the method 
of studying nature that must now be improved. When w^e can 
learn, understand and make use of the lessons with which nature 
teems, the new education will indeed have made a great 
advance. This means much more than merely looking at 
things, though that is better than only reading about them. A 
recent catalogue of a summer school contained a picture of a 
professor of botany dissecting a plant while the class looked on. 
He was learning something and receiving an actual impression 
through the touch sense and the muscular sense, as well as 
through the vision, but the members of the class were getting 
only a slight visual and auditory impression of the plant and of 
its parts (for I presum^e the professor spoke) that they would 
soon forget. Now if each of the class had dissected the plant methods of 
and in addition to the visual and auditory impression, had made study needed 
an impression through the muscular and touch sense^ and then 
had reinforced these impressions by making diagrams and draw- 
ings of the various parts, attaching their respective names to 
each part, first from the plant and then from memory, a more 
permanent impression would have been made. It is the per- 
lormance of actions through a number of the modes of expres- 
sion that calls forth powers of perception and conception and 




64: 



First Principles 



Universal use 
of new modes 
of expression 



expression, and makes so vivid an impression on the brain as 
never to be forgotten. 

The power of imitation and suggestion, the abihty to draw, 
to model and carve natural objects, is inherent and only needs 
to be properly trained to become almost as universal a mode of 
thought expression as verbal or written words. The succeed- 
ing books of this work afford a partial insight into the methods 
of developing and training these forms of expression. 




A Touch of Nature 



BOOK TWO 

Manual-Training 
Drawing 




Original Designs by Grammar Grade Children 



"The instantaneous judgments of the distance, the position, the size, the figure of objects, which accompany 
our visual sensations, are not consciously made, nor are they put in logical form; in fact, all the labors of philoso- 
phers hitherto have not been sufficient to discover and explain the process by which we acquire them— to set forth 
explicitly the premises, the reasoning, and the conclusions which are implicit in them,"— [Maudsley, Physiology 
of the Mind, page 32. 



" The great source of happiness is to be found in the exercise of talents, and perhaps the greatest of all is when 
the ingenuity of the mind is exercised in the dextrous employment of the hands." — [Sir Charles Bell. 



1 ^ '-^- 




Models of Leaf Forms 




•s, S 



yi->'' 



I I i -:-'K), 







c 8 

O ." 

I I 

.S M 






O ^ s 

:3 ^ bB 



IS 











H 

a 

tu 
H 
-< 

a. 




(66) 



Illustration 40 




Some Primary Exercises 



CHAPTER I 

Preliminary Considerations 
in Manual-Training- 
Drawing 



CTT HE FOLLOWING METHODS are advanced with confidence, 
# in view of the fact that there is a general reaction against the 

printed copybook systems of drawing already described. The 
unsatisfactory character of such purely artificial, nay, even mechan- 
ical aids to the teacher, is now generally apparent, and many teachers and 
others interested, feeling this lack of results and deficiencies of methods, are 
already seeking better ways. 

Many artists are also becoming interested in the education of children 
in art work, and are practically unanimous in their condemnation of the old 
systems. Indeed, it is hardly possible to name an artist of any importance 
who agrees with the systems in general use. Artists, usually, are not much 
engaged in public affairs, but when one of them does look into the usual 
methods of education, it is generally with an expression of amazement 
at the feebleness and utter inutility of the art instruction received. Artists 



68 



Manual-Ti-ainingf Drawingf 



are beginning to be more interested in the subject, and several voices have 
of late been lifted up in not uncertain tones, advocating a change to rational 
w^ays of work that will produce useful results. 

When artists are spoken of in this connection, real ones are meant — 
those who actually produce art work. I do not mean those teachers of art 
or of drawing, who have never produced a statue, a model, or a picture. 
Many of these, unfortunately, are engaged in teaching the artificial systems 
complained about, and in many cases they have been trained in normal art 
schools expressly for that kind of work. They never had any real knowl- 
edge of art work, and their products are destitute of value, being vitiated 
by all the intricate inanities of the systems indicated. Artists mus-t, ere 
long, combine against the errors in education mentioned, and it is only 
because of ignorance of actual school processes that they have not been 
already aroused. Surely, their judgment should be consulted as to what is 
best to do, even if they are not teachers. Some of them are sufficiently 
interested to condemn false work, and to suggest improvements. I have 
had many artists visit my schools, and have never yet found any to ol^ject to 
any part of the work, as contrasted with the old methods. They usually 



Illustration 41 





First Exercise, Manual-Training Drawing 



Preliminary Considerations 



69 



II lustration 42 





d '%!&i 




Manual Tra-ining' Exercises 
These grammar grade pupils are trained by the ordinary teacher 



endorse even the most radical changes we have made — changes that are the 
result of experiment — from the standpoint of the artist, not of the teacher. 

It is to be distinctly understood by artists and art teachers who read 
these chapters on "drill" wOrk, that these exercises are not intended to take 
the place of art teaching- of various other forms — the drawing from objects, 
the study of perspective (in its right place), the use of color, light and shade, 
etc. But the object of these exercises is for the definite purpose of supple- 
menting art work in all directions, and primarily for giving fundamental skill 
and dexterity to the hand as an instrument. All art teachers can realize the 
value of a ready hand prompt to obey the mind, one that by training is 
thoroughly co-ordinated to perform all movements with facility as soon as 
thought. Especially is this appreciated if time is saved, and certain 
qualities — such as balance, proportion, magnitudes, space relations, etc., 
are made automatic (see page yj') and, at the same time, the mind is stored 
with all the common and conventional forms and units of design of the best 
periods and of the different styles or schools of art. 

Teachers must realize also that only a very short time need be given to 
this drill work, about ten minutes each lesson, provided it starts at the nas- 
cent or incipient period of childhood. Also, that in all cases, the drill work 



70 



Manual-Training Drawing 



in delineation is accompanied by form work on paper, in clay modelling from 
forms, and (if children are not too young) by wood carving of various forms. 
Of course, if children or adults have passed the nascent period for this work, 
extra time must be given to acquiring the desired facility; for few can be 
found now to dispute the desirability of real manual dexterity for each hand 
for all boys and girls whatever their future life may be, apart from the idea of 
drawing as a mode of thought expression for educational purposes, and as a 
means of correlating all the various studies. I do not think a psychologist 
can now be found who will not strenuously advocate real drawing and proper 
manual training as one of the chief means to reinforce "knowdedge," and to 
make it "wisdom." They will advocate it as a means — through motor move- 
ments and touch sensations — of awakening and making still more alert the 
brain, which is far too frecjuently made dull and torpid by too much verbal 
memorizing, too much print, too much "telling," and too little doing. 

The drill forms in delineation, then, are for the purpose of getting auto- 
matic facility for motor centers of the hand, just as all other modes of 
expression require automatic facility, as in speech, writing, singing, playing 
on instruments, etc. A course of this drill work alone is folly, but accom- 
panied by the other forms of art work and nature study, is of inestimable 



Illustration 43 




Ambidextrous Co-ordinations in Four Directions 



Prelitninafy Considerations 



7t 



Illustration 44 




Free Hand Drawing 
Grammar grade pupils making original designs 



educational value. The forms have l^een -arranged in the order of their 
difficulty, not in the logical order. First, easy line exercises are given, then 
simple units of design, then complex exercises and units of design, and 
so on. 

It is not expected to at once overcome all the evil effects resulting from 
art instruction having been left so long in the hands of mere book publishing 
concerns and their agents, but I do expect to let in some light on the subject. 
Especially do I expect to see the artists, and people who are authorities on 
these matters, become interested in the question and to see them earnest 
advocates of newer and better methods. If this interest is once aroused^ we 
need have no fear as to what will ensue. 

The Two Kinds of Draiving* — Many will think that too much 
time and space have been given in this book to the manual-training drawing 
and drill work, at the expense of the equally important work of drawing 
from nature and art forms. This has been done intentionally. The value 
of drawing as manual training, and of manual training to right and good 
drawing, has not been sufficiently emphasized in the past. No one advocates 
more strongly than I the importance of drawing from nature and art forms, 
but I also recognize the importance of manual training and drill work as 



72 



Manual-Ttaining Drawing^ 



elementary to and supreme for the Ijest results in art work and nature study. 
For this reason I have given the manual training part of drawing in con- 
siderable detail. 

The distinction usually made between the manual training idea and 
art work is a false one. They are two sides of one fact, equally important 
and equally worthy of receiving all possible care and attention. 

In devising the series of drill forms in manual-training drawing given 
in this work, it should be distinctly understood that any forms or 
like characters can be used. I am aware that the moment set things are 
suggested as necessary, routine will begin. The teacher should be con- 
stantly on the lookout for new forms. In the very nature of the case, false 
systems grow out of a rigid adherence to set forms and methods of work. 
Teachers must change and modify their instruction in accordance with indi- 
vidual needs and environment. The forms given are simply the result of 
the experience of one person, and, though proved to be of value by their use 
in large classes, may be improved upon by the experience of others. 



Illustration 45 




First Exercises. Primary School, Colored Children 



Preliminary Considerations 



73 



Illustration 46 




Free Hand Work for Very Young Children 



Pa.per* — One of the best kinds of paper lo use for practice work in 
drawing and for drill work is the common manila paper. Get the light 
tints, as they are the best for drawing, although any kind can be employed, 
the kind that weighs 36 pounds per ream, costing about $3, is here sug- 
gested. The sheets can be cut in half, gii'ing the liberal size of 18 by 24 



74 Manual-Tfainin^ Drawing 

Inches. This will cover the top of any ordinary desk or table, and as it occupies 
all the space in front of the pupil, the hands can move with freedom over the 
whole sheet. I use this paper because it is very cheap and quite as good 
as the white drawing papers for practice purposes. It can be purchased 
with any kind of texture, glazed or rough. Manila paper is good, even for 
designing and making of patterns, on account of its texture, strength and 
durability. 

For practice purposes I have the children draw on both sides. Usually 
we cover the paper all over many times with the drill forms. This paper 
also takes India ink, or the common black inks; of course it is not quite so 
good for color work as the Avhite paper, I have settled on this paper after 
trying many other kinds. 

Pencils — No ' Rubber. — Ordinary school lead pencils will do for drill 
purposes; the best kind is a good, medium-soft pencil. Do not allow 
rubl)ers to be used; it simply wastes time, while no good is accomplished. It 
is, in fact, very important to break pupils of this habit of using rubber. 
Some children, and even adults, seem to think that the first marks must be 
rubbed off in any case. In some schools, it seems impossible for the pupils 
to draw unless they have a piece of rubber in the left hand. 

The habit must be formed of putting down the required touches at one 
touch to stay. This can readily be done and gives greater freedom and 
accuracy than when' feeble tentative touches a>re made, with the idea in the 
mind that they must be changed several times before they can be right. 




Illustration 47 




CHAPTER II 

Elementary 
Drill Forms* 



THIS INSTRUCTION and the exercises in drill work can be 
given by the teacher to a large number of pupils at once. This will 
save time and talking on the part of the teacher. It is advisable 
at intervals to call the attention of the whole class to certain facts. 
The most convenient way to do this is to ring a bell, when all the pupils 
cease working and can listen to the teacher's directions. Pupils working 
at desks on paper can make forms reduced in size from blackboard work. 
The series of marginal forms here given are intended to illustrate a graded 
set of lessons. A large number of forms are given, so that the teacher may 
make a judicious selection therefrom. Bright teachers usually make num- 
bers of other forms, and in a very short time have a collection of their own. 
I like my pupils to forget all they have learned and studied of other systems, 
for the time being. New pupils, those who have never received any 
instruction in drawing, while they may be very backward with hand train- 
ing, are more pliable and grasp the forms very readily, perhaps more readily 
than those who have been trained in other directions and who have various 
faults to correct; especially those who have never been taught to make a 
firm, clear, decided line with a single stroke, but have been taught to dot 
their lines or to lightly sketch their lines, making a series of tentative 



*A11 of the cuts, excepting' a few of the most complex ones, have been drawn by children. 

(75) 



76 

Illustration 



Manual-Training; Drawing; 




Free Hand Exercises in Strais>-ht Lines 



touches, with the intention, later on, of making the marks or strokes better. 
In the old-fashioned drawing methods, this is called "lining in." No one 
can think for a moment wathout realizing how stupid it is to make several 
attempts or to work in that way, when, with very little practice, firm, clear 
touches can be made from the start. 

To Get cAutomatiC FdciUty. — I have repeatedly spoken of 
the desirability of facility in the 1)eginning. These first exer- 
cises are chiefly for the purpose of acquiring facility, — actual manual 
training, the power to make the hand obey the dictates of the mind, to 
make the hand obedient to the will. It does not matter in the beg-innine- 
how crudely the pupil makes the forms. Habit and repetition will correct 
that. Give all the attention in the beginning to position, distance 
movement, and the like. 

The pupil should learn to draw as automaticallv as he learns to write. 



Elementary Drill Forms 77 

Some of the written letters of the alphabet are exceedingly complex, 
embodying difficult compound curves, and growing still more difficult when 
combined with other letters to form a word. Notwithstanding this, the 
dullest pupil, by constant practice, makes each one of these complex charac- 
ters unconsciously. The movements of the hand in writing are automatic. 
When the pupil desires to express himself in words or writing, he is not 
obliged to "lightly sketch" or "line in" the different characters or letters. 
His mind is occupied with the idea he wishes to express upon the paper, and 
his hand moves automatically, without a thought being given to the different 
positions required to form the lines and curves which go to make up the 
written word.* 

Just so it must be in learning to draw. The different movements must 
be practiced till they are drawn with as little effort and as unconsciously as 
are the letters of the alphabet. No special talent or genius is necessary in 
order to be able to write well. The same is true of drawing, in the mere 
acquisition of the mechanical part of the work. Talent and genius are 
required for the higher grades of design and creative work, just as talent 
and genius are required to express great thoughts in written words. 

The First Exercise Is the Circle* — It should be drawn with the 
right hand directly in front (Illus. 40, 41, and 49). Let the circle 
be about six inches in diameter. Do not make the circles 
too large in the beginning, but later on they can be made of 
all sizes — as large as the arm can sweep or as the blackboard 



* " It is easy to perceive why will can only determine the result when it dictates an act, and cannot determine 
the action of a particular muscle, or the combined actions of certain muscles which have not acted together before. 
All it does is to let loose, as it were, the proper agency in the motor center; and this is done by willing the event, which 
it is enabled to do by means of the proper motor intuition. When I will to utter a certain word, 1 will the event, the 
complex articulating movements oeing possible to me only through the medium of the proper motor intuition. The 
impulse jilv.s the special motor intuition constitutes the particular volition. A voluntary movement is truly a reflex 
act in the cortical centers of the brain; diflfering from the lower reflex movements in these circumstances— first, 
that it does not immediately follow the stimulus, but is caused by the excitation of many associated sensory residua 
which have been laid up in consequence of former experiences; and, secondly, that it contains or evinces a dis- 
tinct adaptation to an end or purpose, by reason of the excitation of associated motor residua which have been 
organized elTects of former adjustments. If the result wished is anew, unfamiliar one, no residua thereof from 
previous experiences existing in the motor centers, then the will is unequal to the accomplishment of it; there is 
not an exact and definite idea cf the end to be efl"ected, the necessary motor intuition being wanting. After re- 
peated trials, the desired skill is firmly acquired, and the movementis thenceforth automatic, the motor intuition 
having been gradually organized in the proper nervous centers ; the result stored up strictly corresponds with that 
which in other nervous centers we describe as abstract idea. It is probable that the so-called motor centers in the 
cerebral convolutions are really the centers of these motor intuitions ; in other words, they are the centers in which 
the subordinate motor centers act upon consciousness, and they thus constitute the physiological agency oi 
voluntary movements."— [Maudsley, Physiology of the Mind, pages 466-467. 



78 



Manual- Training; Drawing 



Illustration 49 




will allow. This graded series of exercises, the result of 20 years' experi- 
ence, has enabled me to decide upon certain sizes that are more convenient 

and more adapted for school purposes than others. 
The circle should be drawn on a level with the chin. 
All children show a disposition to make it above 
their heads, to reach upward — a fact of much inter- 
est to psychologists and physiologists. Adults who 
have never had any training usually make their 
circles too low on the 1)oard, and aged people make 
them quite low — another interesting fact. For our 
purpose and convenience, we make the circle 
directly in front, just a little below the eye. See 
that the body is quite erect, and the head level, and 
that the hands swing freely around the circle many times. Then, with the 
left hand draw a circle by the side of the first one (Illus. 41). Practice swino-- 
ing the hand around until the line flows freely. 

Do not allow the body to sway or swing in doing this, but see that the 
pupil moves the arm entirely free from the body. The circle is essentially 
an arm movement. Let there be an easy swing of the arm from the shoul- 
der, keeping the remainder of the body in an easy, comfortable position, and 
carefully avoiding rigidity of the muscles— no tight grip of the chalk. Every 
movement must be as easy, free and graceful as possible. 

At first there is a tendency to put the face close to the blackboard sur- 
face, and to turn the head to one side. Resist these desires and keep up the 
practice till the movement is free and easy. Ultimately all these movements 
should become automatic, or be made without conscious attention or exer- 
cise of the mind. Of course this cannot be expected immediately. 

The next step v>'ill be to take a piece of chalk in each hand and draw 
over the same circle with both hands at once Illus. 41). This 
movement ...I be rather difficult, but in a minute or two the co- 
ordination is made and it becomes easy. This accomplished, the pupil must 
be trained to swing both hands to the right, then to the left, then in opposite 
directions, letting each hand go around the circle in a direction opposite to 
that followed by the other (Illus. 45). This last movement is much more 
difficult, but in a few minutes it is usually conquered by even the smallest 
children. These six movements are to be repeated as drill forms contin- 



Elementary Drill Forms 79 

tially, just as the five-finger exercises are practiced on the piano. Do not 
pay much attention to the accuracy of the circle. It doesn't matter how 
crude it is in the beginning, facility being the first thing desired. Alany 
children in a very short time can swing perfect circles frequently with each 
hand. 

Straight Lines* —The next exercise will be the making of straight lines 
for the purpose of gaining facility in this movement. The pupil, standing 
in the same position as before, must swing the hand up and down vertically, 
making a line about i8 inches in length. In doing this, pay especial atten- 
tion to the position of the body. See that it is erect all the time and that 
only the hand and arm move. Do not allow the body to wave back and 
forth as the hand moves up and down. Try to make the hand independent. 
Beginners will invariably sway the body at first. In teaching a large class, 
say 12 or 20, on the blackboard, it is amusing to see the movements some of 
the untrained pupils make. This is very readily overcome, however, by 
drawing their attention to it, and in a minute or two the hands can be made 
to swing freely, with every figure quite erect, the heads level and at the right 
distance from the board. 

A second line can now be made in the horizontal direction, crossing the 
first, the hand being kept in the same position, illustration 50 
and allow it to swing freely from the right to 
the left, back and forth, till facility is acquired \,,,.,. 
in this movement. The movements can be ''Q?!;,, || ,.£;:«■''' 

followed with the drawing of the diagonal '"''''%;r. ilr#'"' 

lines, also continued until the movements are -.—.;: - -- '■'■■^''y"^^^^^^^^^^ --=:;;;-::■- 

made with ease in any direction (Illus. 48 and ' ^'nt^'''''^b%. 

50). Invariably, in one or two places, lack ^jpy' ;{i| '''•%:^s,j 

of co-ordination will be felt and the line will ,/#'" fit '"^^ibx 

be crooked and uneven, but very little repetition y*' |'| 

*■ 'if 
M'lll overcome these defects. * * 

It is to acquire facility and control, and to get the actual structural con- 
nection and harmony of relation between the hand and "the brain, that we 
make these consecutive movements all around the circle, not with one hand 
only, but with each hand. Especial care must be given to the left hand, 
owing to the lack of its use with the majority of people. But with the 
young the left hand can be made to work with as much freedom as the right, 



80 

Illustration 51 



Manual-Training; Drawing; 



Drill Movements and Spirals for Primary Children 
The forms are made with either hand 



in a very short time, and I see no reason why any of us should not have as 
much control and power over the left hand as we have over the right. 
Crudely speaking, we have two brains, a hemisphere for each hand, and only 
a very dull person will think it necessary to confine himself to the use of one. 
Usually, in the beginning, a little more time must be given to left-hand work 
on account of the movements being slower and more awkward through lack 
of use. (See chapter V"I, page 50, Book One.) 

The Double Loop (Illus. 52). — In making this form, let it be 
about 12 inches in length. Very few beginners can draw it so that it will 
be erect. Usually the force of the writing habit asserts itself and a great- 
many pupils tip this form to the right, finding it almost impossible to make 
it vertical in the beginning. I have a series of exercises expressly for the 



Elementafy Drill Forms 



8J 



purposes of overcoming the writing habit — the disposition to slope forms to 
the right. The double loop is one of them. Allow the hand to swing 
freely, make the two vertical loops equal in size (Illus. 52), and resist the 
tendency of the chalk to follow continually the same line. Let it move about 
till the two forms are to a degree equal and the hand moves with ease and 
facility. Practice the same thing with the left hand. The next exercise 
is to make the same form horizontally; then to put in the two diagonals, 
swinging over each loop many times to get facility and to overcome all awk- 
wardness of movement. Practice on the loops should be especially directed 
to the points where awkwardness is indicated, and continued until this is 
overcome. This is a beautiful exercise for compelling rectitude and for 
making balance, proportion and fitness. It is quite difficult to make these 
forms fit in the beginning. Do not expect accuracy at first, do not mind 
how much the forms overlap in getting facility, but as soon as this facility 
has been attained, endeavor to get fitness and exactness. The same is to be 
done with the left hand. Many rosettes and forms similar to this can be 




Illustration 53 



Illustration 54 





made. Suggestions may be found in the illustrations in this book. It is a 
very easy matter for a good teacher to make twenty arrangements of the 
double loop. 

When facility has been acquired, practice this loop as the smaller child 
is doing in Illus. 51. The pupil must endeavor to make the loops (47) 
erect, equal in size, and equidistant from one end of the blackboard 



82 



Manual-Training Drawing 



to the other. Let them be about six 
inches in length. Then interlace the loops. 
It is quite difficult to draw this (Illus. 60) 
so that the loops will be erect, equal in size, 
and of equal distance. This is a very good 
exercise. Do not allow the form to be 
drawn quickly, and resist the tendency of 
the hand to move as in writing. Continue 
the exercise straight across the board. 
There is a great tendency to let it dimin- 
ish in size. This can be seen readily when 
a large number of pupils are drawing 
the form at the same time. The same 
exercise can be done with the left hand 
and many varieties of it can be devised. 
(Application of the Loop. — The 
next is quite an important exercise 
(Illus. 55). In making this form, draw 
the loops from six to eight inches in 
length, letting the center loop be erect 
and the two side loops balance. The hand 
must swing freely over these lines till per- 
fect control and automatic movement are 
acquired. This compels rectitude, balance, 
proportion and fitness. It can also be 
interlaced by another similar form (Illus. 
59), making, if it is properly done, a 
complete rosette. This is also to be done 
with the left hand. This form can be 
varied in many ways, making use of six, 
eight or twelve loops, interlacing them, 
etc., as shown herewith. 

^dson for these Movements »— 
Only a few of these forms should be prac- 
ticed at each lesson, it being desirable to 
give all the period to two or three, — a 



Illustration 55 




illustration 56 




\ 



Illustration 57 




Elementary Drill Forms 



83 



Illustration 58 





Making Loop Forms With Both Hands, Primary Children 



judicious selection having been made by the teacher. It will be found 
that the forms and the work are a little tedious in the beginning, just 
as the scales in studying music, or the exercises required in singing, are con- 
sidered tedious. But experience teaches that these forms, properly carried 
out, will produce the desired results in the organism in the shortest space of 
time, and the teacher will realize that to get automatic facility a flow of 



84 



Manual-Training Drawing; 




Illustration 59 



\ # 






I I 



Illustration 60 




'■--■^' V> 



movement is all-important. Very little can be done in skilled hand training 
if the movements are made consciously. It is only by making them auto- 
matic, thus allowing concentration of thought upon the end in view, that 
good and skilled work can be done. 

The SpirdL — The next form is one of the most frequent in all art 
forms, — the spiral (Illus. 61). In making this, swing the hand to the cen- 
ter with a single touch. Do not mind how crude it is in the beginning. 
Begin this from the outside at a and aim for the center. Let the end of the 
line be in the middle, at b. Continually practice this form. It is the 
basis of most designs; it is seen in botanical forms, in the movements 
of water, air and wind. Even the planets spin in spiral orbits. The 
endeavor must be to make a true and good curve instead of a bent line. 
Only by making the swing automatic can this be done. The form must be 



Illustration 61 



Illustration 62 



/■" 



\ "x 



\ 






'~'»»,1,.„„»,». 




Elementary Drill Forms 



85 



repeated with each hand in all directions; first, to the right, the left, up and 
down, and of different lengths. 

The next exercise is to double this form (Illus. 63). It can also be 
made fourfold. Next, practice making the spirals flow one into the other, 
like No. 65. Let them show gradation. This is c|uite difficult. Next, 
make a series of spirals flowing one out of the other and ecjual in size, as in 
illustration No. 66. To do this straight across the board, to keep them 



Illustration 63 




Illustration 64 



V 



Illustration 65 






Illustration 66 



\ • 



% 



Illustration 67 (a) 




Illustra'ion 67 (b) 



J ] 



"^, 



7) I 



equal in size and at equal distance, is an excellent exercise. It should be 
repeated indefinitely. This is one of the most beautiful of all forms and it 
is used continually in many of the best styles. In fact, it is hard to make 
a good pattern w^ithout introducing this unit. Endeavor to make the lines 
of the spiral flow one into the other gradually, showing the transition increas- 
ing and diminishing. Do not let it be abrupt and angular, as at a, but flow- 
ing and graceful, as at b, in illustrations No. 67. 



86 Manual-Training: Drawing; 

Modeling and Carving* — Years of experience demonstrate that copy- 
ing and drawing- from models alone on flat surfaces fail to give pupils the 
free swinging movements so essential in making artistic curves and touches. 
The hand always seems to lack a certain facility that even many years of 
work sometimes fail to give. When, however, the hand becomes able to 
move with ease in soft clay and tough wood, when it has been trained to 
follow lines and surfaces through these mediums, it is wonderful how 
quickly the finest and most complex curves can be produced with free 
swinging lines and touches. In drawing these spiral forms, therefore, and 
all the other drill forms, it must be understood that the best results can only 
be obtained when carried out as I recommend in the various mediums — on 
paper, in soft clay and in tough w^ood. 

The facility and accuracy of form obtained by pupils working this 
way, compared with pupils who only draw in the ordinary manner, is ex- 
traordinary. At first I could hardly believe it possible, the difference is so 
evident. Experience, however, proves that a much deeper and more lasting 
impression of form is secured when pupils make the various forms in differ- 
ent mediums. The hand also seems to become stronger and more energetic. 
Of course, working in wood compels the exercise of greater strength 
through the hands, and this exerts a favorable influence over the body, espe- 
cially over the upper part, the arms and chest. This influence is particularlv 
beneficial to children who suffer from the sedentary habits formed in schools, 
who lack full chests and droop over their work. 






^ I 



j*^"" 



^,--""x, 



'f 






Illustration 68 




Memory Drawing' 

These various bird forms are drawn from pictures and the character and size memorized as much as possible. 
The forms are repeated until they can be drawn from mental image. 



CHAPTER III 

Elementary Units 



yl MONG THE MOST POPULAR FORMS of ornament are the 
/J various kinds of foliage. Leaves have been modified for many pur- 
-^ -*- poses in nearly all the styles of ornament. There is no end to the 
variety and shape. For our purpose, we will begin by making a 
few of the simplest conventionalized leaves, from which we may gradually 
pass to the most complex. The simple leaf units, I find by experience, are 
among the best things we have for school practice and drill. They embody 
all the desired qualities and are perfectly graded, from the simplest leaf forms 
to the most complex of the Roman acanthus leaf shapes. 

Sitnpte Leaf Forms* — Draw a vertical line, about eight inches long, 
to represent the midrib of the leaf. On each side place a double curve, as 
in No. 69. Draw the center midrib upward in the direction of the growth 
of the leaf. This form should be repeated. A very good way is to go over 
the lines many times till the double curve becomes automatic. The shape 
can be repeated fourfold (Illus. 70), thus making eight double curves in 
different directions; this should also be repeated until automatic. It is 
quite difficult to resist reversing these curves in the beginning, but a very 

(87) 



66 Manual-Training^ Drawing; 

little practice enables the pupil to get them right and to make good balance, 
fitness, proportion, etc. The form can be made more complex by adding 
four more leaflets, forming a rosette (No. 71). This form can be made 
by drawing the leaflets long and narrow, short and thick, with the complex 
curve, and the single curve, as illustrated on page 96. 

Illustration 69 Illustration 70 Illustration 71 





y. -^ 



=««««««j^4 Kg^r'""" 




\ 

V 

The Natural Method. — Do not expect this form to be accurate in 
the beginning and do not allow any ruling of construction lines or measur- 
ing. This method is a protest against the use of mechanical or artificial aids, 
which help the hand at the expense of the mind and the judgment. These 
forms and rosettes will be very crooked at first, but it is surprising how soon 
they can be made, by very young children, with precision, as though they 
were measured and marked off by means of callipers or rulers. The more 
construction lines are used, the more they will be needed. Abolish them 
from the beginning. Compel the hand and the eye to obey the mind and 
to gain proportion and fitness without aids. This capacity is so desirable, 
so valuable throughout life, in any vocation, that it is hard to think that any- 
one would be willing to use the crutches which are allowed, and usually pre- 
scribed, in most drawing systems. 

It has been universally the practice to teach the pupils to measure off 
these construction lines by artificial aids, thus putting it out of their power 
ever to be able to dispense with them. Do not mind how crooked the form 
is in the beginning. I have never yet found a child, after drawing the most 
crooked rosette in this way, who was unable to perceive its imperfection and 
was not able, if allowed, to improve upon it. It is this capacity that we wish 



Elementary Units 



89 



to obtain, — the power to compel the judgment to act from the start, so that 
in the course of time the hand will obey the mind and the habit be formed 
of making accurate proportion and fitness freehand.* Of course, as facility 
is gained, accuracy must be tried for. 

Children in a very short time can make this comparatively complex 
rosette form with a great deal of correctness and facility. It should be done 
with one hand and then with the other. It is a construction, a representa- 
tion and a decoration, and I think it absurd to separate these qualities, as is 
done in some " systems," and to give long lists of graded exercises under 
each head. All of these simple forms are constructions, representations and 
decorations. It is difficult enough to create the power to make the simple 
forms well without surrounding the work with a lot of technical and seem- 
ingly mysterious terms and processes. Many courses are filled with words 
like " bi-symmetrical conventionalization," " systematic modifications of 
geometric," " bi-symmetrical ornaments," " modifications of the round," 
" kite form," etc. Unnecessary technical terms like these simply tend to 
obscure to the young that which should be as plain and lucid as the thing 
itself. 

The Next Form is the same as the preceding, only a little more 
complex — a leaf with three tips or leaflets. Draw the midrib about eight 



Illustration 72 



Illustration 73 





* The more frequently a voluntary action is repea'ted, the easier it is to perform, and the greater is the tendency 
of its constituents (if it is a complex act) to take on the reflex form, i. e., to arrange themselves in a connected 
series of movements, which runs on mechanically when once initiated by the adequate stimulus.— [Wundt's 
Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology. 



90 

Illustration 74 



Manual-Trainingf Drawing 




Drill Work in Leaf Forms and Loops 
This picture illustrates a pupil drawing the leat and loop in various ways. The lines are repeated 
many times, without rubbing- off the forms, which wastes time. By this repetition the child is making 
the various cui-ved lines, the form, and the space between the forms, organic and automatic, and at the 
same time facilitv, rectitude, balance, fitness and magnitudes are being J'elt and planted in hand, eye 
and mind. 



inches in length, balance the side vein on each side, then repeat the double 
curve to each tip. Let the proportions of each leaflet be about the same. 
This is a very good leaf to practice on. Do not let the tip be made too small, 
as is the common tendency with nine out of ten children drawing for the first 
time. Swing the hand repeatedly over the double curves till they become 
automatic. 

The same thing can be repeated fourfold, making a complex rosette 
(No. 73). It is almost impossible to make this in the beginning without 
reversing some of the double curves. Leave plenty of space in the center, 
and do not mind if it is very crooked at first. This exercise can be repeated 
till the forms fit each other, leaving a space between each leaf. 

No one can see the children draw these forms without realizing what 
an excellent exercise this is for compelling accuracy, facility, fitness and 



Elementary Units 9( 

some of the most desired qualities in drawing. In a short time the children 
become able to make these forms automatically. From the beginning, do 
not allow them to make "construction " lines. Let each leaf be drawn in 
its turn separately. Do not make the ribs or veins for the four leaves 
before starting the outline of each. 

These exercises are for discipline, it should be constantly remembered. 
Undoubtedly, by using a few construction lines, the form can be drawn more 
readily and with much better proportion, but my idea is to get proportion 
and fitness in the hand, to make the hand feel that proportion and fitness 
automatically. This can be done and well done if the forms are practiced 
as described. Thousands of children can make this form with ease in some 
of our schools, showing that it is not as difficult as it appears to people 
viewing it for the first time. It does seem surprising to see children make 
their hands obey their minds with fluency, accuracy and fitness, but it is not 
so surprising when one has been through the stages and can realize how they 
become able to do it. 

I constantly suggest certain sizes for these forms, because experience 
with thousands of pupils has proved the size indicated to be the best. 
There are good reasons for making the forms either much larger or very 
small, but for general purposes the measurements given are the most suit- 
able. It is quite curious to notice the tendency, among children and adults 
alike, to show their disposition and their training by the way in which they 
make some of these forms. For instance, children from the kindergarten 
will almost invariably make minute, puny drawings. The reverse should 
be the case. Very small children ought not to be allow^ed to draw that way, 
because the brain centers with which the fine finger co-ordinations and 
muscular movements are made, have not been formed and come much later. 
In some little children even the bones and muscles themselves are not 
formed. Nervousness and chorea frequently result from work of that char- 
acter attempted too soon. Their movements especially ought to be large 
and free, using arm and hand more than the fingers. I personally much 
object to paper pricking, paper weaving and a number of other similar occu- 
pations in the kindergarten, for the same reason. 

Conventtondt Forms* — These leaves here given are conventional in 
form. Some teachers may object to this, thinking it essential that children 
should make realistic forms before conventional ones. A little thought, 





L"S> 




ex 



Oh 



u 



O 






o a 



S Tn 



O U O 

O •£ "- 

<— ] s 

o 3 5 












X 









o O 



(92) 



Elementary Units 



93 



however, should convince them that if they are troubled with the details and 
myriad-fold markings on leaves, it will be impossible for them to get facility 
and speed; but if they work on a few typical or conventional forms of 
leaves until they can instantly draw them in any position, of any size and 
proportion, and to fit any space, then it will be easy to grasp details, and 
with ver}^ little practice many kinds of leaves and forms can be put down. 
We must, as Michael Angelo said, "purge a thing of its superfluities and 
grasp the essentialities." 

Pupils who have arrived at this stage can make many designs by using- 
these simple forms. They have already some capacity in this direction. 
From the start children must be encouraged to arrange these forms in 
beautiful ways, to make appropriate patterns for various purposes, in order 
to allow their creative capacity to come into play. 

Units of Design Based on the Spiral. — The power having been 
acquired to make the spiral, a large series of units of design can be based 
upon this line. In making the first one, the scroh (lUus. 75), draw the 
outer line first, make the ball come as near the center as possible and 
endeavor to keep the lines equidistant. This is really a form, the delinea- 
tion of a solid, one of the forms used in all the arts. It is made in metal, 



Illustration 73 




Illustration 76 






\ \ 



Illustration 77 




"^ 



carved in wood, modeled in clay and used for a great variety of purposes. 
Do not make the form reversed, as in No. y6. It is a little difficult in the 
beginning for some pupils to grasp, the shape, but it must be practiced con- 
tinually until it can be made automatically.The forms illustrated at yy and 78 
will be found useful for practice also, and are based on the same shape, with 



94 



Manwal-Training Drawing 



slight changes, but increasing complexity. Each of these forms is used in 
some of the best styles. 

Do not allow the children to create freak units. We have so many to 
choose from among the best styles that it is absurd to expect them to create 
units of design at first, as is done in some of the poor systems of drawing in 
which children are expected to create forms. In such cases, the children 
invariably produce poor and feeble forms. 

The Crocket*- — We next have a series of forms making use of the 
crocket. We should practice this form first with the crocket consisting of 



Illustration 80 



Illustration 78 



Illustration 79 



/>-~^ 



. \ I I '""■■"'' / \ 

\ X. """"" .,•>-''" *^"^'-«ib, 




V V 



a sino-le curve on the outside and inside the scroll, as illustrated at No. 80. 
After this has been acquired, try to make the crocket with the double curve 
(81). This is much more difficult and requires a great deal of practice, 
much dexterity being required to get these double-curved crockets so that 



Illustration 81 



Illustration 82 





they flow and have grace. This is one of the units (see aiso 81 and 82) that 
must be practiced continually and for a long time. 

Do not expect the children to make some of these difficult forms read- 
ily. Remember, they have years to practice them in. Some instinctively 



Elementary Units 



95 



Illustration 83 




A Variety of Units of Design Based on the Spiral with Various Crockets 
The pleasing forms should be memorized 



let the lines flow with gradation, beauty and grace almost from the begin- 
ning. With others it requires a good deal of practice to get the very deli- 
cate transitions, from one curving to the other, that are exemplified by 
this form. It can be made to look cjuite clumsy, and it can be made with 
a great deal of beauty and grace. This is true of all the forms given. 

On the Elements of Design* — Now that we have some units of the 
regular styles, we shall in every case hereafter in practicing these forms, 

make the form to get (i) 
^^^^^^^^i^on84 balance, (2) proportion and 

(3) fitness. Do not let the 
pupils practice any of the 
shapes given without trying 
for these equalities. Very 
good simple designs can be 
made by using these forms; 
the children in the primary 
schools can make them 
with a great deal of facility. 
From the very begin- 
ning, originality of arrange- 
ment must be encouraged. 

This pupil is practicing the scroll and various crockets. Repeti- 1 -i i 

tion will enable the hand to make the form any size and proportion Jje SUrC tO haVG tlie CllllClren 

xvith clear swinging lines. When it can be made freely this way, „_i_ fl-,^,%- r,nffprn<; for 

beautiful flowing designs can be produced. m^ke tUeU patteiUS lOr 




96 



Manual-Training: Drawing; 



some definite purpose and be able to specify what they are for, thus associ- 
ating in their minds the drawing with some object for use. It seems very 
foolish, as is sometimes the case, to find a number of children in a class un- 
able to state for what the drawing they have been making is intended. When 
you ask them they say simply, " it is a pattern " or " a design," and when 
pressed for further information about it, they say, " it is for the teacher." 
This shows that they have not m.ade any mental connection between idea 
and subject, and the work soon becomes irksome unless they have an object 
in view. 

It is wonderful what a variety of patterns children will make spontane- 
ously and bring to the teacher if they are encouraged to make designs for 
various purposes about the house, — designs for carpets, wall papers, hang- 
ings, metal work, chandeliers, brackets, registers, fixtures of different kinds, 



Illustration 8= 



I 



Illustration 86 



A r7 





Illustration 87 



Illustration 88 





Rosettes for Driil Work 



carving on furniture, chairs, tables, sideboards, frames, hat racks, etc.; 
designs for pottery and dishes of various kinds. The children instantly see 
the connectior and take a great deal of pleasure in making these forms; and 



Elementary Units 



97 



by using the objects in their own homes they are inspired thereby to better 
work. Parents and friends also become interested, especiahy when they 
see the practical application of the work. 

CombitldtiOns of Units* — The children should be encouraged, as a 
unit is thoroughly mastered, to double it, first in simple positions and 
then in complex ones, as shown in variety in Illus. 89 to 92. It is sur- 
prising in how great a number of positions the simple scroll can be placed. 



Illustration 89 



Illustration 90 







Illustration 91 





I I Illustration 92 








The children must be encouraged 
continually to arrange all the units in 
this way, so as to form different com- 
binations. Do not let them copy only the combinations given here, but 
encourage them to form combinations of their own. 

A very beautiful series of exercises for beginners can be practiced in 
making rosettes, using the simple lobe or leaf form. The rosette can be 
placed in a triangle (Illus. 93), in a square, in a circle, in an oblong, in a 
pentagon, in an oval form, in a hexagon, in an octagon, and so on. There 
is no end to the variety of simple shapes that can be made this way. It is a 
beautiful exercise for fitness and construction. Make the square, or oblong, 
and all construction lines entirely freehand. Do this from the very begin- 
7 



98 

Illustration 93 



Manual-Training Drawing 




Blackboard Exercises — Dra-wing Rosettes 
It is excellent practice to make similar rosettes fit and fill different shaped spaces. The hand and mind 
soon g^rasp the idea o£ concrete size on the flat surface, and become able to make definite proportion auto- 
matically in any position. The children practice these forms entirely without construction lines. 



ning. Very young pupils make very irregular forms at first, but they soon 
begin to get a certain amount of proportion and gradually gain the correct 
shape. Do not expect little children to make perfect forms. Accuracy 
comes by degrees. Facility first, then accuracy. 

Ledding Lines* — So far we have chiefly been studying units of design. 
Now that a number of units have been mastered, we can take up the subject 
of leading lines, one of the most important things in designing. In all pat- 
terns there are a series of fundamental lines that can readily be seen by any 
one who will study them. On these leading lines the units are placed, and 
in accordance with the character of their arrangement will the pattern be 
beautiful or the reverse. The basis of leading lines is the spiral, one form 
flowing out of the other, as in Illus. 96 and 98. If this form is doubled or 
made fourfold, we at once have an arrangement on which any of the units 



^'^.: 



Elementary Units 



99 



of design can be placed, making a pattern that is beantiful or not, as the 
arrangement is beautifnl or the contrary. 

Practice many simple arrangements with a few curves first. In 
making arrangements do not allow the spiral to be made the 
same size. This is one of the universal tendencies of a beginner. 
Insist on variety. Let some of the scrolls be large, some medium 
and some small. Let them show a certain amount of growth, as 
a plant grows. They should display a certain amount of branching also. 



Illustrations 94-95 





Rosette Models for Drawing- and Modeling- and Carving 



Attention must be given also to compactness, to radiation and to tangential 
flow of line. A very good exercise for practice is to make a number of 
tangential curves flowing from the spiral (Illus. 99). This must be constantly 
practiced till the forms flow and branch out without angularity or stiffness. 
Good tangential curvature must become automatic and organic. Very little 



Illustration 96 



Illustration 97 




in the way of fine designing can be done till the hand makes these move- 
ments automatically and with absolute freedom. If we have to think of the 
transition of one line into the other, it will never be graceful. That duty 
must be relegated to the spinal centers. 



LofC, 



100 



Manoal-Trainingf Drawing 



Illustration 98 Resist the tendency shown by 

a great many beginners to make a 
series of Httle curves all alike and 
flowing in a like manner in differ- 
ent directions. Try to get a 
certain amount of strength in the 
patterns, a certain amount of in- 
terlacing, and at the same time a 
certain amount of simplicity. There will always be a few main or funda- 
mental curves that can be readily seen, no matter how complex the pattern 
may be. From these main curves the minor ones can branch out. Very 
little can be said in the way of rules and laws with regard to the real truth of 
arrangements. Like harmony in music and meter in poetry, it must be felt, 
it must be part of the organism. 




illustration 99 




A Suggestion in the Use of Leading Lines 
Many arrangements of leading lines should be made for practice 



Illustration loo 






CHAPTER IV 

Combinations of 
Units and Styles 



Drill Forms — Teachers Practice in Unison 



/t NOTHER FORM, BASED 
/-I on the loop, is one of the 

■^ ^*- best for practice, and can 
now be attempted. Make 

the loop erect and on each side place 

two or three lobes, as shown at loi. 

See that the center lobe is quite erect, 
or vertical. Let each one of the side lobes curve a little more, increasing in 
magnitude and then diminishing. This form can be made with five, seven, 
nine lobes, etc. Properly drawn, it makes the anthemion, one of the most 
beautiful of all Greek forms. It is quite dif^cult to get the side lobes to 
curve and at the same time to show gradation and fitness, but comparatively 
little practice will enable one to do this. This form must also be prac- 
ticed with both hands, it being one of the very best exercises for ambidex- 
trous practice. 

(lOl) 



t02 



Illustration loi 



Manual- Trainingf Drawingf 

Illustration 102 








Illustration 103 



Illustration 104 




m'^ff^^ 




The Anthemton* ^This form can next be practiced in the four different 
directions illustrated in 106 and 116, making another beautiful rosette form. 
To do this successfully, so that the lateral movements may be right and the 
drawing erect, requires a great degree of manual dexterity and physical co- 
ordination, but children in the primary grades can readily make this form 
after a few months' practice. 

It is important that children should understand the meaning of the 
forms drawn l^y them, and when they are producing one they ought to be 
taught what it embodies. The anthemion is a fundamental Greek form, 
and, properly drawn, possesses a variety of qualities. For instance, the cen- 
ter lobe contains straight lines. The form has a graded series of curves -from 
a straiijht line to an acute curve. It has balance, proportion, fitness, grace 



Combinations of Units and Styles 



J03 




Co-ordination of Motor Centers 
Tliis exercise illustrates how readily children can rnalie 
complex physical co-ordinations in all directions. The exer- 
cise is repeated until the child can swing- all. the various 
curves with(T)'facility,(3) balance, (3)^proportion,(4), fitness, 
grace and beauty, automatically. Mental co-ordinations are 
being made, as well as physical. All the varieties of the an- 
themion should be practiced in different sizes and memorized. 
The children should be encouraged to draw them in lead 
pencil and to note variety of forms on surfaces and in ma- 
terial. This form is the basis of some of the most beautiful 
of decorative forms. 



J04 



Manual-Training Drawing; 



and beauty. It has tangential curvature of lines. Its magnitudes are well 
proportioned. It conforms to a great many of the natural laws and the laws 
of art. It has a certain amount of growth, radiation and distribution, and 
hardly an abstract idea of form can be conceived that is not embodied in this 
shape. This is the reason it was used by the Greeks in preference to almost 
any other form, and I believe it was for this reason that they used it as the 
antefix of the Parthenon. 



Illustration 107 




Illustration 108 




Illustration 109 



Illustration no 







^w^ 




Varieties of the anthemion can be made in a great many ways, as here 
illustrated. Names have been given to many of these, as the honeysuckle, 
the palm, etc., but as used by the Greeks it was simply an ideal form and not 
an imitation of any one plant. 



Combinations of Units and Styles 



JOS 



niustrations 111-112 




Plaster Models from the Antique 



Combinations of the cAnthemion* — When facility has l^een acquired 
in making this form, a very good exercise is to combine it with the scroll 
(Illus. 113). In the beginning, make the form without many lobes, taking 
particular pains to make the lobes fit each other and fill the space equally. 
This is a little difficult, but if practiced continually, a short time will enable 
one to make the most complex of lobed forms with ease and beauty. After 
trying the simple ones a number of times, then more elaborate and complex 
ones can be attempted. No. 114 is a very beautiful form, combined with 

the scroll, and can be used for an endless variety of 
purposes. It can be made short and thick, long and 
slender, and can be compressed or extended to fit 
almost any space. With the introduction of crock- 
ets, first, the single crocket and later the double- 
curved crocket, it can be made to look still better, 
as illustrated in Figures 115 and 120. 

As soon as facility is acquired in making this 
form, which should be practiced with each hand, 
and as soon as the power to make it with balance 



Illustration 113 




106 



Manual-Trainingf Drawing 



Illustration 114 and fitness has become auto- 

matic, it can also be practiced 
with the scroll combined an- 
other way, as in No. 120, In 
making this, draw the lobes 
first, with both hands and then 
the inclosing" scrolls. En- 
deavor to make the forms lit. 
This is a good exercise for 
teaching compactness and the 
filling of space, and may be 
performed in a variety of ways 
All of these forms 
made fourfold as 
soon as the first form has been 
memorized, for once these 

forms are fixed in the mind they are not forgotten, but can be called upon 

almost without consciousness. 




/O 



I v,./ ) //y,^'-'^' "\, (iihis. 120). j^ 

\^^"'"'L£C'^S^ — •^'TXJ should be n 






Illustration 116 



Illustration 11=; 




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»-% 






v-./ \\ / v„.y ±^^/ \\W' ""■ v..,,/ 

Cy'' *|^^ ^ 



Combinations of Units and Styles 



J07 



Illustration 117 



Illustration 118 



Illustration 119 



/ A.-, 










/ /'■ 



C\\ I / ^ //f\\\l/ A\ fi 

f-^\\ // -- lN\vy///4\ fc 

L::y)\\/y: l>f>^ % I %~^,mim/^.^.^^ 




\ 11// 211 



Illustration 120 




Anthemion and Scroll 
These forms, varied in size and proportion, must be drawn with clear swinging touches until they can be made 
without consc:ous effort. The basis of the seemmgly complex form is the spiral and loop. When once facility 
and mao-nitudes become automatic, beautiful forms result. 



108 



Manual-Trainingf Drawing- 



Complex Leaf Forms* — The next step is to make a leaf with five 
leaflets, palmate in shape. Proceed in the same way as with the three- 
pointed leaf (page 89), making the midril) first and two curves on each side 
balanced, then the donl)le curves forming each leaflet (Illus. 121). This 



Illustration 121 



Illustration 122 




Illustration 123 



must be repeatedly practiced till a medium sized leaf of fine proportions is 
made. Do not let the children practice a very narrow or a very short and 
thick form. This leaf must also be made easy by repetition, and it can, like 
the former, be made in four directions (Illus. 122). Let it be a1)out ten 
inches in length Avhen drawing it on the blackboard and three or four inches 
in length when drawing it on paper. Reference is continuallv made to the 



Combinations of Units and Styles 



J09 



measurements that have been found by experience to be the most suitable 
for school purposes. If the blackboards are of the ordinary size the meas- 
urements given are far the best for general purposes. Be careful not to let 
the children make forms exaggerated in size, or in miniature. 

It is more difficult to draw a side view of a leaf, but when facility is 
acquired it becomes quite easy on account of its not being a balanced form. 
Let the leaf part be about ten inches in length, draw the large double curve 



Illustration 125 



Illustration 126 



// 








Illustration 128 



Illustration 127 





first and then the two ribs. (See 123.) Do not make it look ungraceful or 
too thick and let the stem be narrow. These are common tendencies in the 

The form must be repeated a number of times 



beginning \\ ith all children 



no 



Manual-Training Drawingf 



to get facility, and then it can be drawn in different directions, balanced, 
made around the circle, etc. 

By this time the double curve should flow from the hands with ease, 
and therefore much more complex forms may now be attempted, as in Illus. 

Illustrations 129-133 




IMiflV^ 




124. As many ribs and leaflets as are desired can be put in. Endeavor to 
get style and beauty in these forms. They can be drawn so as to look very 
coarse and clumsy, or, on the contrary, to look exceedingly graceful and 
beautiful. In making these complex leaf forms, get as much variety of pro- 
portion as possible; do not let the leaflets be all of the same size. The same 
with the ribs; let them flow out with gradation and tangential curvature. 

Beautiful rosettes can be made by using the leaf curve (see 125). Small 
points or darts can be placed between each leaflet and an endless variety of 
such shapes can be made. Make the center boss or ball first, then draw the 
leaflets out on each side entirel}^ freehand, without construction lines, mak- 



Elementary Units and Forms 



in 



ing some of the leaflets with three tips, some with five or more, as shown in 
the pictures. 

Bud Forms can also be made, and leaf sheaths, consisting of an 
exterior and interior double curve (see 134). The same forms can then 
be made with very simple collars (as in Illus. 135), using four, five or six 
leaflets. Let these little collars appear to embrace the root of the bud first, 
and do not draw them as though they came out from one side only. Re- 
member that this is delineating the appearance of a solid on a flat surface. 
It is difficult to make the collar fit in the beginning, but the children soon 
grasp the idea and make very beautiful ones, — some short and thick, some 
long and slender. This is called, in its most complex stages, the acanthus 
leaf bud form. It is simply an ideal bud form. 

Another Beautiful Series of Leaves can be made by using the dou- 



Illustration 134 



Illustration 135 





Illustration 136 



llustration 137 




A 

< ..\/ € / I 



ble curved leaflet as before, but making an "eye" between the leaflets. This 
change makes it more complex and a little harder to draw successfull)'-, but 
it is soon conquered. Make the five-pointed leaf and the side view and all 



U2 



Manual-Training; Drawing; 



the other forms with the eye, as ilhistrated in No. 136. The same thing can 
be done with the bud forms of the last series, always drawing the bud itself 
first, then the midribs for the collar of leaflets radiating from the bud, and 

Illustration 138 





^YM^ 



\. 



■.MH^-'-^... 








the collar of leaflets last. Never, in any of these exercises, allow the chil- 
dren to make the outline first, but let them begin with the riljs forming the 
skeleton or the framework, and if you once get this right, the detail is an 



Illustration 139 





Leat Forms Modeled in Clay 

easy matter. As a result of this practice, the most beautiful and elaborate 
acanthus leaf buds and foliage can be drawn organically. They will then 
appear very different from the usual forms given pupils to copy, in 
which the leaf margins and the forms of the leaves themselves are drawn 
with meaningless lines, and with notches and points like saw teeth, instead 



Comtinatlons of Units and Styles 



IJ3 



of the beautiful double curve that we always find in work of the best periods 
(see Illus. 140-142). 

These idealized forms very soon take on the character of the indi- 
vidual drawing them. Just so much balance and proportion and fitness as 
the pupil has in himself can be embodied in the work of the hand. If there 



Illustrations 140-142 




y**' 

V 



# ^ {•'■^ 



Z' 



^ 



\^/. 









./' 






is a tendency to make coarse forms, then the pupil must struggle, and by 
repetition from good copies and good styles, gradually grasp finer forms. 
I have taken the clumsiest of boys, who seemed to have all their fingers 



Illustrations 143-145 




r^ \\ ^^' 





thumbs, and who produced in the beginning thick-set, coarse and clumsy 
forms without grace, and by giving them special drill on one or two of the 
most graceful of these forms, I have seen them enabled to draw them with 



n4 



Manual-Training Drawing 



iinusnal grace and beauty. To do the work successfully, then, it nuist be 
made automatic. 

The work at this stage, although good discipline, is not a task, because 
the pupils take pleasure and joy in their efforts. There is no more pleasant 
sight than to see eight or ten children swinging with each hand these forms 
freely and gracefully on large blackboards. Even the beginners soon grasp 
the spirit and endeavor to do it also. Do not, however, allow the pupils to 
struggle V ith the very complex units before they have mastered the simple 



Illustrations 146-148 






\ 





ones, as you will find that they continually wish to do. I am well aware 
that there are many drawing teachers, and even in some cases artists, 
who ought to know better, who will say there is not much good in drilling 
children and requiring them to do work of this character. Usually, how- 
ever, they will be found to be thoughtless people who have not looked into 
the laws of mental growth and who do not know the force of habit. The 
drill is necessary to get the qualities desired, and as long as it is enjoyable, 
benefit comes to the pupil. I am well aware that the work can be overdone. 
This is true of any good thing. But I write this simply for the benefit of 



Combinations of Units and Styles 



JJ5 



teachers who have a little imagination and who will not be tied down to any 
one set of processes or forms. Ten-minute periods are cjiiite long enough for 
this practice. 



Illustration 149 



Illustration 150 





Leaf Forms Modeled in Clay 

Another series of beautiful leaf forms can be made, using the leaf 
either with three points or five points, and with and without the eyes, by 
employing double curves in each midrib. These are much harder, and 
should not be attempted until the erect or straight leaves have been mas- 
tered. The forms can be made around a circle, turned up and down, to the 



Illustration 151 




illustration ma 




Leaf Forms in Design Modeled in Clay 



right and the left, as illustrated in No, 146-8. Pupils will in the beginning 
find that they reverse these double curves frequently in starting any new 



JJ6 



Manual-Trainingf Drawing 



form, and that is a sure sign that the curve is not made automatically. It 
must be practiced with both hands till it is right every time. Just as we 
have practiced to get facility in making these leaves and a certain good pro- 
portion, they should also be practiced to get fitness, — that is, to make them 
fit different sized spaces and to proportion them to other surroundings with 
ease and grace. This will not take so long as one would think> when the 
first stages have been mastered. Designs embodying these forms should 
be made, first, by simply doubling, 
then by making fourfold and still 
more complex arrangements. 

Illustrations 153-156 





vV 









/7 



jAj^ yy- 





.>'^'^i'T\'''§xy' 







'*NX^ V '"'^ 



Combinations of Leaf and ScrolL — Practice making this scroll and 
leaf in a very simple form first (Illus. 153-6). Make the scroll with a single 
touch, a little crocket inside, and lastly the double curving portion or piece 
of leaflet. When this has been tried in different directions a number of 
times, make the same form, adding other curves as with leaflets. 



Combinations of Units and Styles 



JI7 



Practice making these in dilTerent directions quite a numl^er of times. 
Then the same form can be attempted with more elaboration. Make the leaf 
portion with several leaflets. These forms will be quite awkward and clumsy 
in the beginning. It is very hard at first to make them flow out from each 
other. Let them "grow." Persist in making them with the left hand in the 
drill work, and in a very short time beautiful conventionalized foliage can be 
drawn. 

The result is very different from the amateur work usually produced by 
people who attempt to make foliage wnthout having first learned to draw 
thoroughly and automatically. It is impossible to express growth and tan- 
gential curvature and flow of line with complex leaflets and buds in different 
places, if one has to think of details and the shape of the different portions. 
That must all be automatic in the hand, the thought being given to the 
arrangement, the flow and the transition of one form into the other. Only 
when such freedom is secured do we have drazving as a mode of expression, 
which is very different from imitative drawing, copying a piece and a portion, 
first "sketching" in with light lines and then "lining in" w'ith others. Our 
children have plenty of chance to make merry over that kind of drawing. 

To replace the scroll any other of the units of design can now be used 



Illustrations 157-158 








L^"^ 



\A^~M 



with the leaflet in endless combinations, paying attention, of course, to fine 
arrangement, to flow of line and to beauty. Space will not allow me to 
illustrate a fraction of all the combinations that can be made, though I 
should like to suggest a few^ These forms can readily be seen in the illus- 



ns 



Manual-Training Drawing 



trations of pupils drawing on blackboards, in different parts of the book. To 
make combinations of these forms is one of the usual drill exercises in all 
our schools, the children stepping up to the blackboard in rows and each 
one making different patterns, that are elaborate and graceful according 
to the amount of practice they have had. Children starting with this work 
at the regular primary age can readily do as good work as is here illustrated 
by the time they are about ten years of age. 

Illustration 159 




Moresque Designs 

These forms are quite difficult to make flowing' and graceful. Tfie single units must be tfiorouglily memorized 

before successful designs can be made. Fine arrangements of tliese can be made with brilliant colors. 



The Moorish Units* — Another very good unit for practice is the 
Moresque unit. This is much more difficult to make automatic than 
appears from its simple form. Make the large double curve on the outer 
part of the unit first. (See Illus. 160.) Then swing in the double curve 



Combinations of Units and Styles 



n9 



from the point so that if prolonged it would 
flow from the stem and the two short 
curves, diminishing in breadth toward the 
stem. 

This form must be drawn with a single 
touch for each line. It is an ideal form, 
and perhaps next to the Greek form is one 
of the most beautiful in the whole range of 
design. Make the unit short and thick, or 
long and slender, but always with a narrow 
stem. It is quite difficult for the pupils to 
resist making a scroll instead of a point on 
the short blade, as indicated in Figure 
162. Point out to the class the two blades, 
a long double curving blade and a short 
thick curving blade. Time must be given 
to this form, and after a good deal of prac- 
tice it can be doubled. Practice drawing 
it singly and doubled in all directions 
around the circle. 

The next unit (Illus. 163), also 
Moresque, is likewise good for practice. 
This is much more easy than the pre- 
ceding form, although it looks more 



Illustration 160 




Illustration 161 




Illustration 162 




Illustration 






Illustration 164 



Illustration 165 



Illustration 166 






120 



Manual-Training Drawing; 



complex. Make the outer curve swinging" to tbe top scroll, and then a 
double curve to the second scroll and then a long, slender stem. This must 
also be practiced in many directions. Be careful to space markings equally 
and parallel. In combination with the other form given, beautiful 
Moresque patterns may also be made. Great care should be exercised in 
spacing out these forms and in interlacing them, otherwise the product will 
be poor. Simple arrangements are best in the beginning. Each of these 
forms doubled can be used for drill work on the blackboard, a few of which 
are illustrated in No. 159. 









.. ^-<,m 






>' 
J -» 












Illustration 169 




^<«i8a^ ' :;Piy i >a iii i^>i 







Colored Pupils from Public Schools 
These children have been instructed by their own school teacher, in drawing and modeling 



CHAPTER V 

Drill Forms and 
Designs. 



j^ COMPLEX EXERCISE and one requiring a certain amotmt of 

y/jf dexterity is to combine circles, making different figures. Do not 

allow the pupils to make these exercises luitil they are expert with 

the single circle. Make the following exercise (Illus. 171) by 

drawing first one circle and repeating the line by swinging the hand on it 

several times to memorize the size and proportion, then swing the hand to 

the second position, making the circle as near as possible the same size, and 

then to the third position. If it is properly drawn, it ought to make a 

complete circle inclosing three ec|ual circles, equally interlaced. 

This is a good exercise for the judgment and to fit the forms. When 
the three-sided center piece is made of equal curves, equi-distant, and the 
next space is even and equal, and so on to the inclosing circle, it shows great 
accuracy. I shall repeat again that we must not expect accuracy in the 

(121) 



J 22 



Manual-Trainingf Drawing 



beginning. Facility first and then accuracy. This is a statement that I 
shall make continually. Measured accuracy, of course, is not required. 

The greatest artist that ever lived could not perform these simple exer- 
cises absolutely true, but ordinary people can perform them to a degree. 



Illustration 170 




ca 


fU 


if \ 


Iv ft" 


\^s 







Illustration 



171 






'ill, , J 





Illustration 172 



showing very good proportion, fit- 
ness, and so on. If a large class is 
drawing the same exercises, it is very 
rare that one or two do not fail to 
show remarkable facility and exact- 
ness in doing these things. Some have 
facility and accuracy almost organic 

or automatic in the beginning; others seem to entirely lack these qualities, 
and it seems as if they could never acquire them. 

Borders make a very good series of exercises for practice and drill work. 
The pupils can begin with the simplest frets (like 173). Make these forms 
entirely freehand, straight across the blackboard or paper, from end to 
end. Do not mind if they are not accurate in the beginning. The tendency 
with everybody at first is to make them diminish in size. Resist this and 
keep up the practice, and very soon the border can be made with straight- 
ness and the other required qualities. Make a number of forms similar to 
the border, using straight lines, as illustrated. Then a series can be 



Drill Forms and Designs 



J23 



made, using a combination of the horizontal and the oblique line. A num- 
ber of elements are used in borders. The pupils can begin, say with the sim- 
ple frets, using straight lines, then a simple elementary plait, the zigzag, the 
beads, and other complex ones. The -wave, the scroll, and the spiral will 
make a beautiful series of borders, and all the different units of design can 
be used in it. The scroll and crocket, the leaf, the Moresque unit, the Greek 
form, etc., can be used for the same purpose, as partially suggested in the 
accompanying sketches. 

Illustration 173 




Exercise in Drawinof Borders 
Borders of many styles can be drawn and memorized by repetition. All the good common bor- 
ders seen in wood, metal and stonework should become familiar to the pupils. It is excellent 
practice to draw them entirely freehand across the board, also on paper and slates. This compels 
a great deal of accuracy. 



Endeavor to have the children vary these forms and make the same 
units of different proportions. Beautiful borders can be made with the 
Greek forms, introducing theanthemion. Then there is a series of Celticfrets, 
Arabian frets, Moresque, Chinese, and so on. It is quite important that pupils 
should understand the meanings of some of these ornaments, this enabling 
them to enjoy the ornaments more thoroughl}^ Very few of the wonderful 
patterns seen sometimes on barbaric ornament fail to contain or symbolize 
certain things. 



124 



Manual-Tfainrng- Drawing 



Illustration 174 




Strap Work 
To make these forms interlace and balance without erasing lines or marking off the dimensions, 
compels attention and is valuable manual training. Very elaborate work, strap work and i_om. 
plex frets, etc., may be drawn for practice this way. 



Exercises to Compel Accuracy*— Tho. little exercises here given are 
to compel the hand to attention. I begin with a simple form, the loop 
(shown at 174). The object is to enal)le the hand to make the loop stand 
erect and to interlace the band at once, freehand, without crossing. To 
make the doul:)le loop is a little more difificult. To make it so that it 
is equal on both sides at first is almost an impossibility. But notice that when 
the form is repeated a few times the hand gradually becomes accustomed to 
it, and makes it in better shape; and after a few repetitions the power to get 
the form interlaced and at the same time drawn correctly is unconsciously 
applied or becomes automatic. Do this with the loops fourfold as above. 
Next try the band (Illus. 174), making all the links equal in size and 
each band interlaced with others at regular intervals. To do this at first 
without raising the pencil except at the required places, compels attention 
and a certain amount of thought and care that is beneficial. Next, try the 



Drill Fofms and Designs J 25 

form of two rings interlaced. The lines are to be drawn at once without cut- 
ting each other, and the rings should be quite evenly drawn. This must be 
repeated many times. Then the same thing can be done with three rings 
interlaced. 

The next exercise is to draw a band interlacing the ring (Illus. 174). 
Remember, it is recjuired that these forms should interlace without cut- 
ting and without lifting the pencil except at the proper stops. The work 
requires continued thought and trouble in the beginning, but can be done 
quite swiftly and with a great deal of accuracy after practice. This is a 
thing to be desired and helps exceedingly in a variety of places in drawing. 
It makes the hand obey the thought in certain places with rapidity. Do not 
mind how crooked the forms are in the beginning, or how many errors 
are made. Persist with the work till it can be done with ease and accuracy. 
A good return will be had for the trouble taken." 

Interlacing work of several kinds can also be attempted. To make 

this so that each band is of the right length 
Illustration 175 

!j i J A i J ' ; j without cutting the wrong band, requires a 

i-L™l ,| ™Ll„,„i -"- . , , . , ^. ^ 

I II •[ certam amount of dexterity and neatness that 

™J~1| |, U 1 Li \ is much to be desired, and is difficult to get. 

■-•p-rH I V J I i--^ j Remember, the hand is to practice this till it 

i I"""*"""*'" I f-'^ -^--j j" can do it automatically. This seems impos- 

I FT T""\^ \ f |"""| I sible at first, but it has only to be repeated till 

.„,„^ „ 1 I I I the hand and the mind are thoroughly familiar 

■ f I *"""""\ \ i«-J i j I with what is required, when it can be done 

I j I ] j I I I I f readily with great ease. The size of the mesh 

can be changed. It is a good plan to try 
strap work of different kinds like this and other patterns. 

These exercises are especially good for students who are inclined to 
be a little careless or slovenly in their work. It is especially good for those 
who are not careful in the beginning, and expect to come back at some 
future time and make things better, when it might be done right at the 
start. It is also excellent discipline, and is useful for adults for practice 
when they require to be braced up a little or do not have energy sufficient 
for more important things. 

Drill Work* —Throughout this period of our work I attach much im- 
portance to drill. I want lines to be drawn automatically. I want them 




J 26 Manual-Ttaining Drawing; 

to be made with single sweeping touches. A curve is something very dif- 
ferent from a bent hne. The more sweep and swing you can obtain, the 
better the curve will be. We should be able to swing curves of any size 
and gradation automatically with a single movement. We cannot imitate 
a true curve or spiral by patches and short touches. This is the reason the 
drill forms are so continually emphasized and that I wish you to practice 
the sweep and the swing over and over again, until you can make good 
spirals, double curves, circles and ellipses. 

The ellipse is the most beautiful of all geometric forms and one of the 
most useful in design. It is even more beautiful than a circle, because it 

has the cjualities of the circle combined with variety 
of curve. Practice to make the ellipse automatic 
by means of the following exercises. In swinging 
this form (Illus. 176), do not endeavor to follow 
the same line. Swing about in different places. 
Facility first and then accuracy. This is a good 
Illustration 177 exercise, because it compels balance. Both sides of the 

f^'''^'''>f^C % ellipse must be symmetrical. When facility is acquired 

\ /' X>'// with the one form, practice it in combination (Illus. 177), 

A //V-- as in the preceding exercises. It is also good to make 

h ''\<;''' ); long and narrow ellipses, short and thick ones, to be able 

Xi^j>' '''-:::::z^ ^^ make the hand obey automatically the mind in response 

to the desire. We should be able to put down in drawing all these forms in 

the proportions desired without an instant's hesitation. That is what I mean 

when I say that proportion must be made organic, just as we endeavor to 

make balance, facility and fitness organic. iiiustntion 178 

When this can be done it is very good ^ >--'^^""""""^ ~ -~~-x'' 

practice to make a series of vessel forms. Let '-{ -^ ^}, 

the form be simple in the beginning, like lyS ^ ~^ / 

for instance. There is no exercise that will ^^ -_ J 

give the children the idea of a solid, the com- -i^^r^ y 

plex sohd, in different positions, more quickly 

than this. The making of simple saucer or bowl-shaped forms must become 
automatic. One must practice with them till the form is symmetrical and 
Stands properly. It can be made deeper or wider, and different sizes can be 



Drill Forms and Designs 



J27 



made so graduated as to indicate the whole gradation from a straight hue to 
a circle, as observed in different relations to the eye. 

Practice with these curves will enable one to get very accurate b^dance 
in these vessel-shaped forms, and the children can also do it. Of course. 

Illustration 179 




Drill for Magnitudes 
This picture shows pupils memorizing' magnitudes and making solids. The ellipses must be swung with 
free continuous touches until the balance and size of form is felt. Various cylindrical forms should be 
drawn as cylinders, cones, circular plinths, etc. 



in the beginning the vessels will seem a little bent or crude, but they will 
look like solids, like vessel-forms, containing cavities. In teaching de- 
lineation, this is quite an essential point to make children realize. It is 
quite difficult by the old way to make some children, and even adults, re- 
alize that the movements or touches they are making are the visible rep- 
resentation of something in their minds. Usually they look at the marks 
on the paper or the board as they make them, disassociated from the mental 
image of the thing they want to represent. They look at the pencil lines or 
chalk marks as the diagram in itself, and begin to work with that, modifying 
and changing, instead of keeping to the original mental image, and making 
the hand follow that form. 



J28 



Manual-Training Drawing 



It is not easy to make my meaning clear by means of printed words, 
but if one will practice with this form, and at the same time think of the 
saucers and dishes being solids, the hand will very soon grasp the feeling that 
it is delineating something tangible and concrete, not simply making pencil 
or chalk lines. This association is strictly necessary in drawing. We 
want to make the connection between the eye and the hand machine-like, 
automatic. We want to make one obey the other without thought, and 
the more we encourage this capacity the better the drawing will be. All 
kinds of cylindrical forms can be made, cylinders of various sizes, circular 
plinths of different sizes and the like. 

It is a very good exercise when the children have acquired facility in 
this way to make a cup and saucer. (See Illus. 179.) Every line in this 
cup and saucer can be made accurately by means of swinging the ellipse in 
different directions, and it can be put in very accurate perspective. It is 
quite difficult to make the cup fit the saucer in the beginning. It is good 
practice also to make different sizes of cups and saucers fit each other. 

I believe this principle was understood by the Greeks. Certainly their 
vessel forms of all kinds conform to it. Almost 
every Greek vessel can be drawn by a series of 
these curves. In the simple vase form with 
handles, illustrated in No. 179, page 127, every 
line is made without any trouble, and very good 
balance can be obtained if the ellipses are even. 
Of course this cannot be expected until the 
ellipse is made automatically, but when that 
facility is once obtained, beautiful, balanced ves- 
sel forms of all sizes and shapes can be produced 
with a few touches. It is very good drill, when 
the children are practicing, to have them make 
new vessel shapes, using the principle. Do not 
let it be overdone. Keep the forms simple and beautiful. 

The transition of curve into curve can be studied while producing this 
vase. Some of the most beautiful Greek moldings conform to this prin- 
ciple. Usually, the more gradual the transition from curve to curve is 
made, the better the result. I repeat that this is useful in enabling one to 
make the two sides of a complex-shaped curved figure of any kind, in wood, 



Illustration 180 



5l«K5Hra«cs3Kia,a^. 




Drill Forms and Designs 



J29 



stone or metal. It is easy to bring the concrete ellipse to any proportion 
and then to repeat that in any position. I have never known any one 
taught in the old way able, in drawing a vase form, to make the balanced 
line down the other side of the complex form. They can very seldom get 
the two sides ahke, and never with a single line. 

It is one of the most tiresome of the drawing exercises usually given 
to children in schools, — to make the two sides of a vase, and I have even 



Illustration iSi 




Diagrams (or Section Views) of Vessel Forms for Designing- Upon 
Some of these shapes are copied and modified. The good forms are memorized and original designing 
is attempted. The balanced curves of these forms have been made by swinging the ellipse lightly and then 
erasing the unnecessary lines. 

seen the vase form cut out on paper and pasted on the wall, for them to 
copy, as though that would make it more easy. Magnitudes must be 
grasped mentally before they can be dehneated, and to do this, power to 
make magnitude must be made automatic by proper exercises. It is fool- 
ish to expect a child to put down a complex magnitude by imitation at the 
first attempt. It is invariably exaggerated in size, and little profit results to 
the pupil. The eye and the hand must take in proportion by repetition of 
various sizes consciously assimilated (Illus. i8i). 

Work in Design* SNhm the children have had a little practice 



J 30 



Manual=Training Drawing 






!hBl0T#iS 



tQs5 



feaf 







Drill Forms and Designs 



iZt 



Illustrations igo-193 




Desig-n, in Several Colors, for Stained Glass Window- 
Made by a pupil in the Manual-Training classes of the New York Young- Women's Christian Association. 
The fine color-qualities cannot be perceived in this reproduction. 




Designs by Public School Children 

The center cut is unfinished. These designs are made in various colors for different purposes. 

The forms are made entirely freehand. 



J32 Manual-Trainingf Drawing 

in drawing the units of design on paper, as well as the drill forms on 
paper and blackboards, they can begin to make designs. See various illus- 
trations of original designs by children and teachers on pages 66 and 130, 
also scattered throughout the work. 

In some of my classes I allow the use of the ruler, making straight lines 
and marking out the sizes of the space that the pattern is to occupy. In 
other classes they have to do not only this, but the drawing of the straight 
lines entirely freehand, according to the amount of discipline which it is 
desired to give them. If they are very young, or perhaps mixed classes in 
the night school or mixed classes of beginners, it is advisable to give them 
the ruler to help them. If they are pupils who have had thorough training 
and the right elements of drawing, and have a certain amount of good hand 
and eye power, like the grammar grades of children who have had this train- 
ing from the beginning, they can readily make their entire patterns free- 
hand, drawing all the lines without the use of a straight edge or ruler, not 
measuring distances, and making all circles without callipers. It is good 
sometimes to give the ruler to pupils to test or judge the amount of pro- 
portion they have made, if you can depend on their not making the actual 
forms with it. This is a question for the individual judgment of the 
teacher. Some classes of pupils, of course, will cheat and use the ruler, 
others will do as is required. 

Color and Brush Work* — When designs are finished to the teacher's 
satisfaction with a pencil, it is a good plan to allow the pupil to paint the 
background or the design, whichever is best, in black ink. If it is a mat- 
ter of economy, say in the night schools or rural schools, common jet l^lack 
ink can be used, with a round pointed brush, with hairs about half an inch 
in length, — Nos. 4 and 5. If the best results are wanted, allow the pupils 
to paint the pattern with India ink, or Higgins's black ink, or preparations 
of that kind. This throws out the design and enables one to see the full 
effect, besides affording the pupil the opportunity to use another tool, the 
brush. 

It is quite important to get good brush handling, and in this elementary 
brush work you should endeavor to get the children to make free, clean 
touches with the brush (Illus. 194). Practice making some of the forms 
large, and some small; try to swing the brush freely, without resting the 
hand or arm. The most beautiful flowing lines and forms can be made this 



Drill Forms and Desigfns 



133 



way. At first, the forms will be very crude, but to be of value the forms 
mtLSt be made freely without help. Do not allow them to pick out the shape 
with little patches. Endeavor to get them as much as possible to draw 
with the brush. Very little practice will enable one to grasp the best mode of 
handling the brush. There is no better way than the Japanese method of 

Illustration 194 




Freehand Brush Play is Good Practice 
in making various forms and also backgrounds in color. The pupils must endeavor to make the 
forms with as few touches as possible. Try to draw with the brush, also to do it without sup- 
porting the hand in any way. Much of the best Greek and Japanese work has been painted 
freehand. Grasp the brush sometimes in the hand like a pen, sometimes by the tip of the handle. 

working, wdiere the entire forms are made b}/ brush work. The patterns 
can also be painted in monochrome, in one or two shades of the same 
color, as sepia or terra cotta; and later on two, three and four shades of 
different colors. 

From the beginning the best pupils should be allowed to use white 
paper and should be given water colors. If it is a matter of economy, 
cheap colors can be purchased that are very good for this purpose, as low 
as fifteen cents a box. For ordinary school purposes, however, it is still 



t34 Manual-Training; Drawing 

better to use the regular water-color paints. They last a long time, and 
five or six boxes will answer the demands of a large number of designers. 

Blackboard Work. —Class instruction at the blackboard is shown in 
elementary stages for grammar grade pupils in illustrations 41, 42, 43, and 
45. These pictures are from photographs taken in one of the public schools 
in Philadelphia. The teacher has about 60 pupils, and all receive this 
instruction in turn. The four pictures simply show a series of stages 
from the simple circle to elementary designing. No. 41 represents the 
children making the first exercise, the circle, which is usually drawn, 

Illustration 195 



a^.. 



id. 




Freehand Designing 
Allow pupils to draw bold and free flowing arrangements as large as possible, making the curves 
with swinging lines. This is open air work on blackboard, made by a member of my summer school 
in the Adirondacks. 



as described before, in six difi^erent ways. The second picture (page 
69) illustrates the children drawing the scroll form doubled with each 
hand, the beginning of a pattern. The third (43) illustrates the pupils 
drawing the anthemion four difl^erent ways, the hands being placed for 
the purposes of illustration in the different positions. The fourth 
picture (No. 44) represents the children drawing designs. These pic- 
tures were made on the same day and the visit was unexpected. I 



Drill Fotms and Designs J 35 

made the pictures myself, but had never been in the building before, so 
that the test was a fairly good one. 

Under each stage represented there is a very large series of forms in 
which the children are drilled. Of course it is not possible to represent 
each one, though I should like to do it. The children are called up in 
rows, two or three to a board, there being four blackboards in the front of 
the classroom. In some schools there are blackboards around two sides 
of the wall, which will allow more pupils to be drilled at the same time. I 
find some teachers can, by thus dividing the class, give very conveniently 
a good lesson in blackboard-drawing to a large class in 20 or 30 minutes, 
every pupil working in turn on the blackboard. 

The wise teacher will modify the suggestions offered here to suit her 
own environment. It is advisable for the pupils not working on the black- 
board to observe closely those who are drawing, the teacher calling especial 
attention to faults in position, or to particularly good results; then if con- 
venient, or at other times, the pupils at the desks can draw the same forms 
on their slates or paper, as preferred. It would appear from the pictures 
that these children are too close to their work, almost as though their 
faces were touching the blackboard. This, however, is not the case. The 
effect is produced simply because the camera had to be placed behind the 
children. You will find that some are almost at arm's length from the de- 
signs. There is a tendency with little children to stand too close to the 
board. Resist this as much as possible. Let the work be bold and free. 

Designing on Bla.ckboa.rds* — When the pupils have become able to 
make the elementary forms and units of design without any trouble, and 
have gained a certain amount of automatic balance, proportion and fitness, 
it is desirable that they should take up a course of designing on the black- 
board, it being one of the best possible surfaces for doing good or advanced 
work. I recommend, if the classes are not too large, that one pupil work 
on each blackboard, or at least have a space 3x4 feet ; 4x5 feet is still better. 
This makes a splendid surface for a single pattern. It is advisable that the 
designs be made as large as possible, and that both hands be' used. 

Notice the illustrations herewith, page 136. This is part of 
a blackboard-drawing class. For convenience, I have shown the same 
teachers drawing two different patterns. It will b© noticed that each pat- 
tern is different, that the scroll, anthemion, leaf form, shell form and 



Illustrations 196-197 




Blackboard Designing' and Drill 
These designs have been made by teachers of the public schools, members of the teachers' classes, Public School 
of Industrial Art, Philadelphia. The forms are memorized but the arrangement is original, and is drawn without 
erasure until the entire pattern is finished. Both hands are used, the left hand for the left side and the right hand 
for the right side. See page 135. Work like the above is done in about 4 to 6 minutes usually. 

(136) 



Drill Forms and Designs J 37 

Moresque form are used. The teachers are using the left hands in every 
case illustrated. This is simply to emphasize the desirability of using the 
left hand, for reasons advocated in First Principles. 

It is best for the pupils to make the center of the pattern first, being 
sure that they find the middle of the board. It is not necessary to draw 
a line, as is done in some cases, down the middle of the board. They must 
be able to feel the middle. The center parts can be drawn with both hands 
at once when they are symmetrical. If the pupils have had proper drill in 
the elementary stages, this will be quite easy. Then the rest of the pattern 
can be put in position. From the beginning, emphasize the desirability of 
firm lines made with clear and swinging touches. Endeavor to erase as lit- 
tle as possible. Of course when the pattern must be modified and changed, 
the eraser may be used, but refrain as much as possible from altering every 
little part. 

Try to see the form as a whole before making it. A good designer 
can always do this; a bad designer is one who makes it up as he goes along, 
putting things here and there by chance, if they happen to look well. It 
is much better to be able vividly to form the concept of what is desired, and 
then to put it down complete, with a few firm touches. The teacher can 
very soon distinguish the pupils who are drawing this way, with a complete 
concept in mind, from those who are " making up" as they go along. Lack 
of clear thought shows in the hesitating movements, which betray lack of 
confidence. I can also distinguish this class of work in finished designs. 

It is a little difficult to cover the whole surface of the board with judg- 
ment, good balance, etc., but it is good discipline, and can be done just as 
readily as if the pattern were very small, and gives much greater dexterity. 
Patterns drawn this way in the beginning will sometimes be very poor in 
composition and sometimes be too large or too small in parts. The ob- 
ject of the teacher should be to rectify, as much as possible, this fault. The 
moment the pupil steps back, errors of this kind can be perceived and recti- 
fied. It is better to hammer at one pattern several times than to try mak- 
ing a number of difi^erent ones, letting each one have an entirely dift'erent 
character. Modify one pattern till it becomes very much better, — till 
teacher and pupil are alike satisfied with it, — then attempt another. 

This practice should be continued till the forms of any style can be 



J38 



Manual-Training Drawing 



varied endlessly at will. Very soon, when pupils arrive at the stage illus- 
trated, there will be a desire to introduce still more complex forms in the 
design, such as dolphins, griffins, grotesques, and other decorative forms. 
This should be encouraged in moderation, and attention should be given 
to the form used. It should not be used unless the pupil is thoroughly 
familiar with it. From the beginning, see that the patterns are made for 
some purpose. Do not let the drawings be meaningless patterns on the 
blackboard, without any intention. Of course there is practice in this, but 
from the beginning the pupil should firmly keep in mind what the pattern 
is for, — whether it is to be used for wood, or for stone carving or fabrics, etc., 
and as much as possible it should be rendered so as to be fit and appro- 
priate for use in those materials, 
lllustrat on 198 





Free Hand Design wilh Gritliiis 
Do not let pupils use any complex form in designing until it is thoroughly memorized. This pattern has been drawn 
in six minuses, without removing the hand until finished. The left side was drawn with the left hand first, then the 
right side drawn in proper balance with the right hand. 



illustration 199 




Drawina: from Life 



CHAPTER VI 

Drawing From Life Forms 
and Memory Drawing; 



rHIS IS AN IMPORTANT PHASE of oiir work, and one that 
must be emphasized by the teachers, all the time, if they desire to 
get good results from the pupils. Pupils should be encouraged to 
draw from living forms as much as possible. A few illustrations herewith will 
serve to explain my meaning. Notice the picture of the girl drawing chick- 
ens. The chicken is moving about in a coop. At first the results produced 
are very depressing. The bird will not keep still, the pupil complains. 
With a little practice, however, it will be found that it is not nec- 
essary that the chicken should keep still ; that its shape can be 
observed even when it is moving about. Notice that the girl has 
drawn the same chicken in five different positions, — a side view that 

(139) 



140 Manual-Trainlngf Drawing 

was drawn first; the chicken eating corn; a front view of the chicken 
looking up; the chicken seated; and the chicken holding up its head. 

If the pupil will persist in making a few of these diagrams without 
minding how crude they are in the beginning, in a very short time it will 
be noticed that the hand and the mind become more familiar with the form, 
and that although the drawings are very rough, they will become success- 
sively a little better. A little more power will be registered in the mind 
and hand by means of each diagram made, and by degrees the hand will be- 
come more obedient. The feet will not be made too large or small, the bill will 
become of the right proportion, and the tail will stick out in the proper 
way. Nothing but making the form of the chicken organic by constant 
repetition, will enable one to draw^ it properly. When a sufificient num- 
ber of impressions of the various parts of the chicken have been received bv 
the mind, through the hand, then the hand will begin to obey the mind and 
be able to reproduce them readily. This is the stage desired, and it 
will come to almost any one who practices a sufficient time. The chief 
thing to do is to work, and not be discouraged by the distortion of the first 
forms that are made. 

The same discipline can be obtained from cats, dogs, horses, birds, or 
any living animals that can be seen without trouble. The sketches may 
be made on pieces of paper or in a note book or sketch book. In some 
of my summer classes w^e frequently use blackboards in the open air, as will 
be seen from several illustrations in this book. It is of no use to copy the 
chicken a few times and then stop. The work might as well not be 
done if that is all that is done. The memory of the form must 
be fixed by subsequent repetition w-ithout the chicken. This is 
an important point. Sketch first from the real things, as often as is de- 
sired, to make the required mental and manual connection, and then as 
soon as possible test the mind and the hand by trying to recall the shape or 
shapes. 

Do not be discouraged if the product is bad at first. Continually re- 
enforce and refresh the mind with new^ impressions from the object, and in 
a short time it will be found that facility is obtained, and that much better 
power of expression is the result. The first pictures and sketches are not 
made to keep. Of course I understand as well as any one that there are 
degrees of capacity in this work, as in all other kinds of work, but I have 



Plate Ten 








""^-^^^ 



V>, ..<f 




..^., / 



:M> 




fA . - --W,,- .saak.^ 



Painting in Color from Nature 
Beautiful color work from natural forms can be done by children in the lower grades of all schools, if they are 
rightly instructed. Vivid memories of color should be received from fruits, flowers, insects, birds, fish, shells, etc. 
Color harmony and values should be taught from natural forms, not from stained and tinted papers. The butterfly 
should speak directly to the child. The colors, their areas, tints and values should be^ memorized and similar ar- 
rangements made in designs for various purposes. The teacher should be very careful in the beginning not to 
puzzle children with abstract theories about color, or to teach false nomenclature. 

(MI) 



J42 Manual Trainingf-Drawingf 

never yet found children, teachers, and other art students who have not 
been benefited, however bad their work may be at the outstart, by working 
this way. 

Good drawing- and sketches of this character can be made from the 
mounted animals and other specimens in any good museum. There is a cer- 
tain stiffness and rigidity even in the best stuffed forms, but thev are 
good to use if nothing better can be had. In some of my schools I have 
beautiful stuffed bird and fish forms of various kinds, mounted for study, 
but if possible I prefer the pupils to work from the real forms, and for this 
purpose excursions are made to zoological gardens and to other places, 
and the children are continually invited to draw animal forms in their native 
environment. Almost every one has a cat, a dog, or a canary, and there is 
no better practice than to sketch one of these forms continually until it can 
be put down successfully from memory alone. 

Persistence Required* — To do this properly requires a good deal of 
artistic and manual skill, and these exercises are desirable for their aid in this 
training, apart from the even greater value to the mind, the judgment and 
the imagination that always accrues from vivid, permanent impressions reg- 
istered in this way from the realities of life. Such sketching from memory 
must be done continually, not a few times only, followed by long intervals 
of cessation. It is like practicing on the piano; fifteen minutes or half an 
hour each day, steadily persisted in, will do more good than five or six 
hours a day with long intervals between. 

I think this holds good with almost anything. All progress is a mat- 
ter of persistence and self-control. There are many people who desire to 
be able to play well or to sketch well, yet who have not enough force and 
energy in their disposition to be willing to make the required movements 
continuously, and who allow the influence or force of their surroundings to 
dra,w them away from their desires. This yielding is in proportion to their 
weakness of character. I think one of the most valuable lessons that we 
can learn from this work is the fact that it helps to form the will and de- 
velops a tendency to continuous application, which increases as the difficul- 
ties increase, and our line of work is of such pleasurable character that it 
carries with it a certain amount of satisfaction and joy that cannot fail to 
expand and elevate the mind. 



Life Foi-ms and Memory Drawing 143 

Memory *Drd1Vtng of all forms and ideas is not insisted upon enough 
anywhere, though it is one of the most beneficial exercises for expandino* 
the mind and giving the artistic ability so much to be desired educationally/'' 
All good artists sketch incessantly; it is beneficial even to recall forms and 
designs when there is no opportunity to put them down on paper. Not life 
forms only should be memorized, but the mind should be exercised in mem- 
tally designing, and making compositions or patterns. Very valuable and 
useful power can be gradually acquired in this way. We should be able 
to think compositions and designs, and mentally to change them from state 
to state, just as the character of our speech or the current of our ideas 
change when we are thinking or reasoning. 

Illustration 200 




Common Mackerel — Scomber Scombrus 

One of the most important of food fishes. It is finely fo.med and a very active oceanic fish. All the fish 
lorms illustrated hereaffter are drawn and modeled in my various classes. 

Fish Forms are fine subjects for study. Usually simple in form, the 
children will be found to draw them with much delight,— good typical forms 
like mackerel, the salmon, the bass, perch, blue fish,— what fine shapes! 
There is something about the fish that usually makes children's eyes sparkle. 
I don't know whether it is because they have experienced the joys of fish- 
ing, or whether it is that the drawings revive the sparkle and the gleam of 
the actual fish in or out of the water, but I do know that children take much 
delight in making these forms. A few suggestions will be given as to 
drawing these on the blackboard and on paper. There is an endless variety 



*The nhysiolocjical condition of memory is that organic process by which nerve experiences in tne diflferent 
centers are registered; and to recollect is to revive these experiences in the highest centers the functions of which 
are attended with consciousness-to stimulate by external or internal causes their residua, aptitudes, dispositions 
etc., into functional activity. Stimulated from without, they constitute recognition, that is, cognition with memory 
of former cognition; stimulated from within, they constitute recollection.-[Maudsley, Physiology of Mind, page 514. 



J44 



Manual- Training Drawingf 



Illustration 201 




Illustration 202 



The Carangoid Fish — Caranx Mjyposis 

This fish is related to the mackerel, American bhie fish and pilot fish. This and other essentia! facts 
about it are learned by the children as they draw or model the form. 

of form among the fishes. Some seem all head, some nearly all tail, some 
are without fins, some with fins like wings. 

Fish are beautiful examples of color. It is important to draw the 
attention of the children to this. The colors are iridescent, pearly, and 
brilliant to a wonderful degree in some fishes; when they first come out of 

the water, they gleam like a rain- 
bow. Get the children to recall 
these impressions. In many 
schools and homes small aquari- 
ums afford good opportunity to 
study the movements of living 
fish. Small fish have just as beau- 
tiful movements as the large 
ones. After some of my talks 
the children take a joy in visiting 
the fish markets. Nothing is 
more beautiful in color than a 
heap of shad, herring, mackerel, 
lobsters, crabs, and shell fish, 
when just out of the water, and 
children, when they once become 
interested, are fascinated and register many vivid impressions in various 
forms. Encourage them to look at these things, Hardly any one can go to a 




Anarel Fish 



Life Forms and Memory Drawing; 



J45 



fish market, when the fish are beginning to arrive, without seeing crowds of 
men and boys, usually idlers, looking at the splendid forms, the beautiful 
curves, the variety of color, as the fish slide about. If anything ex- 
ceptional, like a large turtle or sturgeon, is on view, there will be a crowd 
around it for some time. There is something more than idle curiosity 
here, there is so powerful an attraction in these strange and beautiful forms 
that the attention of even the most careless is compelled for a little while. 

This is the thing to lay hold of, with children, and it is a divine energy 
poured out on every one. On this we must build if we wish to get them in- 

Illustration 203 



-g-^- 




Sheepshead— ^rc7josargrMS 

A large and valuable spnroid food fish. So called from the fancied resemblance of its 

head and front teeth to those of a sheep. 



oculated with the love of nature and the beauty and the joy that follow if 
this is cultivated to the higher stage. This energy must be cultivated and 
conserved, otherwise, like other vivid impressions of youth, it fades away, 
and finally, in a great many cases, is wholly lost. It must be cultivated 
skillfully and systematically from stage to stage. This a true teacher will 
do without taking the life out of the work by tedious, needless repetitions 
of tiresome formulas, graded steps, definitions, etc. 

Typical Forms* — I use fish forms throughout all the grades. In the 
first grade I find th^ children fascinated in drawing a fish, while in the 



J 46 



Manual-Training; Drawing 





The Silver Moonfish— Fo?7ier setipennis) 
Called also Blunt-Nosed Shiner. 



Illustration 204 liighest grades they are 

pleased to make various 
lish forms and also to ideal- 
ize them in the way of dol- 
pliins of various shapes. 
The experience of many 
years has taught that the 
child in the beginning must 
have a concrete generalized 
fish form in its mind, a kind 
of type form if you like, one 
that has the usual spines on 
its back, the tail at the end, 
fins on the side, gills, etc., 
but which is not the picture of any special fish. But I find that when the 
children have once become able to make this generalized fish form with 
facility (and by making it, I mean when the connection has been thoroughly 
established between their finger tips and their brains so that they can re- 
produce it automatically as they think of fish), the moment they think of 
spines, the spines grow on the back; the moment they think of tail, the 
tail rays out from behind; the moment they think of fins, the fins are placed 
in position automatically; while the same is the case with the scales I 
find also, if this form is thoroughly organized into the mental fabric, that 
children, when they have special fish forms presented to them, can readily 
grasp the differences and the resemblances, and with very little practice be- 
come able to delineate these forms. 

Speaking Through the Finger Tips* — This is the manner in which T 
should wish all drawing to be done, and the way in which I have en- 
deavored to make my pupils work. It has proven to be quite successful. 
To me this method is in accord with the usual process of mental develop- 
ment, it being simply the assimilation of certain impressions till they are 
made permanent and can be reproduced through the finger tips, just as we 
assimilate impressions and through other motor reactions give utterance to 
our ideas vocally or in writing. The time is coming when people will 
speak with their finger tips as well as their tongues. I mean the common 
people, not simply a few geniuses. I believe that there is a larger proportion 



Life Forms and Memory Drawing; J 47 

than we think of people who are gifted in this direction, and I see no reason 
why the hand should not respond to any idea or thought as instantly as the 
tongue usually does. In education, I have found that working in this 
direction is perfectly practicable; that the instrumentalities in all children 
and their powers and capacities seem as though they were specially en- 
dowed to this end. I really believe that all hands are capable, in the way of 
art work, of responding in an exceptional degree to some environment, or 
to some of the varied conditions of nature. 

Notice the children drawing firsh forms in Illus. 205. These are gen- 
eralized forms. In making them the children, of course, have had the real 
fish, a plaster model, or a diagram, to study. I am not as firmly set as 
some teachers on the subject of copying from models all the time. I 
find that a photograph or print will call up a good memory of the various 
parts of a fish to children, especially if they are encouraged to look at and 
memorize the real forms. I find every day that it is more important to get the 
children to mentally recall form than it is to imitate it from the object. Of 
course some imitation must come first, but the fine technic is a matter of 
years, and the ideas of form can be growing meantime. But there is a 
great deal of merit and discipline in getting the children to endeavor to make 
tactual impressions on paper of even the complex things they cannot readily 
have before them, like a horse, for instance, that they have seen 
on the street. If you speak of a car horse or a cab horse or a horse in any 
of the v/agons coming along the street, and mention several parts of its 
form, the children usually look for these things the next time they see the 
horse. 

I frecjuentl}^ ask them to draw a shad during the shad season, and find 
they do not know its shape. They have forgotten, perhaps, the shape of its 
spinal fin or its tail or the bulk of its head. Let them do the best they 
can for the lesson, and then request them to look at the shad, and you will 
fi.nd that the next time they draw they have a very vivid impression or- 
ganized in the mind, of spinal fin or tail or head, usually an impression that 
is organized so that the concept never fades. It is to get this knowledge 
to come to the finger tips, instinctively on command, that we work. 

Importance of Simplicity* — Notice that these diagrams of fish that the 
children are drawing are very simple, that they contain the fewest lines pos- 
sible. From the very beginning the essential features of form should be 



J48 Manual-Training; Drawing 

Illustration 205 




Memory Drawing of Fish Forms 
The children are practicing drawing various fish from memory, to make different sizes and proportions, and to 
make them turn in different positions. The child should get facility of expression with a few essential features, before 
much in the way of detail is required. 



grasped with a few touches. If I give a fish form to a student, of any age, 
who is not practiced in our method, there is usually an attempt to represent 
a maze of details, and the fish form or other form is lost in the endeavor to 
put down unessential features. To grasp the " essential" features and " to 
purge the form of superfluities" is of course the artistic part of the work, 
and this point the teacher can illustrate in different ways by showing good 
.sketches, diagrams, and pictures by good artists, Invariably it is found 



Life Forms and Memory Drawing; J 49 

that great artists simplify things. And in drawing as a mode of expres- 
sion, — the kind of drawing that we wish to get, — this simphcity and 
strength is what we aim for. There is no harm in the l^eginning to have 
little children copy one of these hsh forms from the teacher's diagram on 
the Ijlackboard, or from a chart or a good photograph. The teacher can 
also have real fish, bonght for a few=' pennies, on the desk; can have a 
stuffed fish, a plaster model, or a living fish in a globe. He must aid the 
child, however, to get a certain proportion in this work, just as it gets a 
certain proportion in a leaf or an apple. The teacher must direct attention to 
the radiation of the spines and fins, the marking of the scales, and prac- 
tice must be given in making these forms a number of times, till the propor- 
tion and detail of the different parts become automatic. 

Then the teacher can let the children make the fish move al^out — or 
take difTerent positions. This is much harder, but they soon conquer it. 
To make the fish turn around or swim up or swim down, or flap over, is quite 
difficult, but if they have once conquered the generalized form, so that it is 
automatic, they can very soon become able to make the same forms move 
about, and they take a great deal of pleasure in doing so. 

c/1 Wdrning* — Do not expect these things to come in two or three les- 
sons. Remember, though you can give a little child these form.s, that it 
usually has eight years of school time in v\diich to practice. The children 
you see in our illustrations drawing these forms have become able to make 
any kind of fish in an}^ kind of position, just as readily as they speak. Of 
course it is a matter of years. It is a very foolish teacher who expects a 
child to make a fish or other animal turn around in a few lessons, a thing 
that some artists cannot do (if they are recjuested) after years of experience, 
simply because they do not draw from memory, by the expression of ideas, 
IjUt b}'' imitation. They must imitate some form before them, they have 
never done anything else. 

This is usually the trouble wath many of the art schools, — there is 
imitation of models and sketching from models endlessly, with very little 
memory W'Ork. I believe if a cjuarter of the time spent in looking at models 
were given to recalling, without the model, the impressions made by it, much 
more valuable results would be obtained. 

Variety in Forms* — When the children have facility in making the 
fish forms, as illustrated, drawing them with ease, allow them to make 



i50 Manual-Training Drawing 



Illustration 206 



q 




The Sea Bass. 
A large marine food fish, called also locally blue bass, black sea bass, black fish, blue fish 
and black perch. 



varieties of fish, long and slender, short and thick, etc., and encourage them 
to look at fish. 

Invite them to catch fish. If we register the vivid impression 
that comes when a child first catches a fish and inspects it in all its glory of 
sparkling color, if we can make this impression vivid and organic with the 
joy and the beauty that goes with it, we have done something toward de- 
veloping the artistic sense; — and I attach much importance to these uncon- 
scious glimpses of nature forms, as seen in the fields, the streets and the 
markets. Let us do all we can to make them indelible and permanent, es- 
pecially through the feelings and emotions. This can only be done by fre- 
quently recalling the images and nailing them into the fabric of the mind by 
deeds, by performance of actions through the different channels of human 
activity. For our purpose we do it by recalling and recording the forms 
as often as possible on paper, in clay and in wood. Beware of making any of 
this pleasant and enjoyable work a task. This is where the teacher's judg- 
ment and skill must come in. Through the same door that you open into 
the mind, this energy or spirit can fly away. Watch, therefore. 

Invite the children to try to represent fish forms that they have ex- 
perience of and with which they are familiar. They become sometimes 
especially fascinated by strange fish forms, and it is well, if you have the 



Life Forms and Memory Drawing; 



151 



facilities, to show them pictures of these or make pictures of them on the 
blackboard, — a shark, for instance, a flying- fish, or some of the many various 
forms with special peculiarities. 

By degrees various adjuncts of the fish form can l^e taught to them, 
wan the names of the different parts, like the diagram on page 153. These 
technical terms and others have a more or less complex character, accord- 
ing to the grade of pupils that are receiving instruction, but they can readily 
be fixed in the mind by this method. 

I have many children who know the names of the different parts of the 
fish, which they can express with ease by drawing. To get them to memorize 
the names of the first dorsal, the second dorsal, the pectoral fin, the ventral, 
anal and caudal fins, and other difficult technical names, without some means 
of systematically reproducing them, is a hardship, and one of the things 
from which the present schools suft'er. It is unreasonable to task the mind, 

Illustration 207 




Drawing Fish Forms From Memory 
The children also write or print the name of each variety under its form, so that they never forget it. 



J52 



Manual-Trainingf Drawing 



the verbal memory, with such things. Placed in the mind, however, by 
these instrumentalities, learning, and even the practice of expressing ab- 
stract thought in symbols, becomes a delight and a pleasure, and is con- 
tinued with ease. 

Encourage the children to notice the strong erect lines of the spines, 
the stiff, springy look. In some positions fish assume most beautiful 

Illustration 208 





Fish Forms in Desiarn 



curves and when the children begin to ideal- 
ize these forms, very fine designs and sugges- 
tions can be received from them. Notice the 
many varieties of form in which the fish is 
used in combination with other forms. 

Fish Forms in Design.~Uke other animal forms, the fish is much 
used in decorative work, and gives additional beauty to some parts. The 
scales are used for surface decoration of many kinds. Practice in 
drawing scales so that they fit is one of the exercises that I give chil- 
dren at certain periods. To draw scales so that they are equal in size and 
fit nicely, so that they gradually diminish or increase in size, compels a 
wonderful amount of atte-ntion, and requires a great amount of manual 
skill. To do it successfully in certain materials, like clay and wood, re- 
quires fine manual training. Further suggestions for the use of fish forms 
in design are described and illustrated in Chapter VIII of this book. 

In making work of the highest character, of the most beauty, it is im- 
portant that we should know as much as possible about fish forms and their 
color. The more intimate we are with these things, the more wisdom and 
the more knowledge we can put into the designs that we idealize or ideate 
from them. Very few people can really enter into the pleasure and the joy 



Life Forms and Memory Drawing; 



153 



of some of the great works of the best periods of different nations, simply 
because they do not see the connection between the natural forms and the 
idealized forms. Some of the most beautiful and wonderful of the Japanese 
and Chinese dolphins, dragons and grotesques are made from idealized fish 
forms. It is an added pleasure and joy in life to be able to perceive the 
beautiful as rendered even by " pagans" and other curious peoples. 

Fish forms should be modeled in clay continually, especially if a vivid 
memory of the form is desired. They also make beautiful decorative forms 
for various purposes. 

General Remarks* — I have given this lesson on fish forms enlarged and 
at length simply to illustrate and suggest a few points to instructors that 
can be applied equally to all forms, the same ideas and movements applying 
to everything created and suitable for instruction. Stupid and dumb is the 
teacher who cannot, even in the most degraded and forlorn environment, 
get the common bits of nature that are so silently eloquent. Make even 
the sticks and stones and grass speak to and through the hand, the head 
and the heart ! 



Illustration 210 




Nature Study 
Drawing a chart to indicate technical names of the different parts 



Plate Eleven 



<fE 









Drawing from Nature 
Rapid sketches are made of the movements of the dog. This work is difficult at first, but if the 
pupil models the form also, accurate memories of form are received and made permanent. 



(154) 



Illustrations 211-213 



~1 





Various positions of tlie same sliell, as memorized by tlie children. The shells being- fine in form are oood 
models. 



CHAPTER VII 

Drawing; from 
Nature and from 
Memory * 



71 T^VTURE IS THE BEST DESIGNER. Our pupils must assimilate 
/\ a variet}^ of impressions from nature before we can expect them 
to create anew. Take shells, for instance. It is almost impossible 
to think of a new shell, the entire field seems to be exhausted b}' nature, shells 
being of every conceivable variety. It seems as though nature had worked 
out every possibility to its utmost exaggeration. We have shells thick, shells 
thin, shells long and slender, shells very short and thick, with spikes, spines, 
processes, ad infinitum. Before drawing shells it is advisable for the 
teacher, and the pupils also, to make a few diagrams, illustrating the growth 
of shells by addition to the margin, as pictured in No. 214. They can be 
made to take much interest in the growth and structure of the shell. It is 
advisable to explain to them how and why shells assume the diiTerent 
shapes, from the flat, scalloped to the pointed, spiral form. 

Simple diagrams should be made at first, almost conventionalized forms 
if you prefer, and study should be made of shells simple in form, like the 
scalloped shell, spiral shell, cockle shell, clam shell, etc. If some of these 
are in pairs and doubled (Illus. 215), it makes a still more interesting picture, 
and the children grasp the relation of actual shell forms to some of the 
beautiful idealized shell forms in ornament. 



*As much as possible, nature forms should be used in drawing-. Good work, however, can also be done 
fiom photographs and books. Diagrams from books are used several times herein as suggestions. 

(155) 



i56 



Manual-Trainingf Drawingf 




Drawing from the Object 
All sizes of shells can be drawn in the hand this 
way and form memorized. Small shells of beauti- 
ful form and variety can be purchased cheaply. 



Illustration 214 j^ jg good practice to draw the 

shell freehand on the board from one 
held in the hand, making different 
views, then memorizing them, like the 
illnstration 214. There is no better 
practice in drawing and color work 
than can be received from making ac- 
curate drawings of beautiful shell 
forms. Shells can be purchased in 
some instances for ten cents a quart. 
In a quart of such shells scores of per- 
fect and beautiful specimens can be 
found. They last a long time and the 
children, if they are inspired properly, 

are never tired of looking at them. Shells are among the best things we 

have for teaching color. Some of them are perfect poems of color, and as 

they can be bought "lustration 215 

very cheaply, they are 

among the best things 

we can have for school 

models. The children 

have learned one of the 

most desirable lessons 

when they begin to ap- 
preciate the wonderful 

architecture spun into 

a shell, its form, its 

color, its structure and 

texture. When they 

can in the slightest de- 
gree r e pr o d u c e its 

beauty, prgportion and 

ntneSS m actions that Drawing from Meinory and from the object 

are themselves fit and beautiful, the shell has fulfilled one of its missions. 

There is a great deal of talk about the expensiveness of school models. 
It is simply an excuse made by some ignorant people for the barrenness and 




Drawing; From Memory 



J57 



bareness of the ordinary common school room. A bright teacher can 
collect or gather clam shells and oyster shells that are perfect in form and 
color. Sometimes a clean oyster shell is a revelation of perfect colors and 
tints, being iridescent, translncent, pearly, etc. The greatest scientists 
or artists could require nothing better or conceive anything so fit. It 
is possible, for two or three dollars, to get a collection of shells of the com- 
moner varieties that would stand the wear and tear of a class room for many 
years. The same is true of other forms. 

I find usually that this idea of lack of materials is more a matter of ig- 
norance than anything else. It comes from a barrenness of mind which is 
an outgrowth of the common idea, so fixed in the mind of most people, that 
reading, writing and arithmetic are the main things. Fortunately that 

Uustrations 216-217 




Shell Forms 

Some of the most beaiitiful lines in design and ornament have oeen taken from shell forms. No study 
will broaden and expand the mind more quickly than to assimulate, first hand direct from the shell, complete 
ideas of fine lines, curves, structure, texture, color, etc. 



time is passing by, and we are beginning to find school rooms filled with 
appropriate things. I read in a recent paper the account of a new school in 
a large city where the committee are actually requesting the sum of $100,- 
oop for plant and fixtures alone. I knov^ by experience that, unfortunately, 



J55 



Manual-Training: Drawing 



Illustrations 218-2TC 





f4t 



Inside and Outside of the Same Shell 

a great deal of this money will be spent for elaborate furniture, cumbersome 
desks and closets, etc. But the beginning- of the new era is upon us. 

Blackboard Work. — Shells should be drawn on the blackboard at in- 
tervals. Allow the children to select any shell they desire and to make dif- 
ferent freehand views of it on the blackboard. The shell can be held in 



Illustrations 220-2!! 






m 




Lesson From Shells 
The examples ot tang-ential curvature, radiation, transition of curves, etc., are perfect on shells. The 
children should be carefully instructed to study and reproduce these qualities in pencil and with color. Sorne 
of tlie scallop shells are much used in carved work. 



Drawing From Memory J59 

the left hand while doing this, and even vei'}' small shells can be used. At 
first allow the drawings to be as simple as diagrams and of the easiest views, 
gradually attempting the more complex positions, as facility is gained. Re- 
member that the first object of this work is to store the memory with im- 
pressions of shell. To enable the mind to vividly recall or recollect shell, 
these exercises should be repeated until typical shells can be drawn from 
memory. Lead-pencil sketches for detail should be made, and also, if pos- 
sible, sketches in color. 

Shells should also be modeled in clay, producing both realistic and 
conventional copies. 

^trd ^orms* — Little children can begin to draw bird forms. The con- 
cept or typical idea of bird is made up, to the child, of the various impres- 
sions it has received from the birds with which it has been familiar. (See 
illustrations of children drawing birds on pages i6o and i6i. It does not 
matter how crude the first attempts are. It is a good plan for the chil- 
dren to make simple diagrams of birds' heads, like those of the pigeon, crow, 
hawk, parrot, paroquette, eagle, and so on; or of the common chicken, the 
rooster, the duck, the goose, the swan and others. Side views of the duck 
swimming are perhaps as simple as anything in the beginning. 

Endeavor to get the children to think of the shape of birds. Simple 
diagrams or drawings can be made on the blackboard of very difl^erent 
shapes of birds, for instance, the crane, the stork, the heron, and then birds of 
opposite characteristics, like the owl and the eagle. A simple bird form, 
like the sparrow or any small bird that can be readily procured, should be- 
come automatic. The children should be made by repetition able to put 
this form down without trouble from memory. When this can be done 
readily, then the bird should be placed in different positions and the child 
should be encouraged to make drawings of these positions and to mem- 
orize them. Allow the children to attempt these different positions on the 
blackboards. Of course to render a bird flying or spreading its wings is 
difficult, and it requires a knowledge that you must not expect from chil- 
dren in the beginning. But as they become able to place the simple forms 
in various positions, and as they get more practice, in drawing, of the dif- 
ferent things required in their different studies, so they will become able to 
make these complex forms with greater ease than one would think possible 
if it be attempted to render them without this previous work. 



J 60 



Manual-Training Drawing 



Illustration 222 




Primary Work by Little Children 
Drawing bird forms, dogs, cats, etc., from memory, in diflerent positions 



Encourage the children to notice different kinds of birds, as the 
canaries at home, the parrots, and other birds they see when they go to the 
zoological gardens, or the common birds seen in the country. Encourage 
them to make drawings of these things, even while they are moving about. 
I have numl)ers of children who can do this readily. It is not necessary 
that a bird should be stuffed or that it should be dead before you can see 
the length of its bill or the size of its head. If a child is looking at a 
flamingo walking about, making its peculiar motions in the water, it can 
notice the strange shape of the bill, the wonderful length and beautiful 
curving of the neck, the remarkable length and structure of the legs, and 
other particulars without any trouble. It should l)e a1)le also to make a 
drawing or tactual record of these remarkable points. It does not matter 



Drawing: From Memory 



t6i 



if the bird bends its neck while the drawing is being made; it is still the same 
bird and neck. With very little encouragement children become able to 
grasp the form and reproduce it, even when the model is moving. This 
is a great and desirable step in drawing. 

It is only the most stupid kind of people who think that the living- 
forms must pose before them to enable them to grasp the shape. The 
children you see working in the pictures here given have made many of 
the drawings from living forms. They can also make very good drawings 
of the same forms in any position without the models. The chickens have 
been drawn while walking about, the same with the parrots. 

Of course in the beginning bad drawings result. No one can make 
six or eight diagrams of a crane without making the last diagram better 
than the first, if one has a crane or a picture or model of one to refer to. 



Illustration 223 





Memory Drawing 
These bird forms have been memorized rom specimens photographed in this book. This pupil can 
draw any of the birds in different positions from memory, 



i62 



Manual-Training; Drawing; 



Illustration 224 




EnlariJ:ing Drawings from Sketch Book 
The same forms should be drawn in many positions and memorized. 

It is the constant repetition, the association of idea with movement, the 
constant endeavor to reproduce, that ultimately leads to achievement. 

And do not expect likenesses, actual portraits of these forms, from lit- 
tle children. If they get any idea of the form in the beginning, they 

When they have had sufficient practice with this 

Illustration 225 



should be encouraged 







Bird Studies 
Variety of birds' bills, drawn from Webster's dictionai7. The teacher is giving 
an object lesson to a class. 



Drawingf From Memory J 63 

memory drawing, some can reproduce images with the utmost fidehty, and 
it is remarkable what an amount of observation they disclose and of acute 
perception of details that they can render. Never expect them to render 
forms without first assimilating impressions from the real things, or from 
prints, pictures or drawings of some kind. They must be constantly sent 
to the source, to the thing itself, to receive fresh impressions. 

By degrees they will lose the desire to sit and imitate detail by detail, 
and this is a valuable quality we wish them to get, — the power of being able 
to mentally photograph the object they look at, and then to revive it later; 
to be able to recall it with its original vividness of form, color, light and 
shade, — its essential qualities. That this can be done and well done by 
children I am convinced from the product that we get in our schools. If 
it is done systematically throughout all the years of school life, I claim that 
we will have a product that will be much more valuable than any yet at- 
tained. As teachers, this is what we must aim for. 

Color in Birds* — Let the children study a feather. Beautiful lessons 
can be given on a feather. And then, wings ! Is there anything more 
beautiful in the world than a wing, in its wonderful structure, form, texture, 
color? A few wings of different kinds should be drawn repeatedly till the 
children can automatically reproduce the overlapping of the pin feathers 
and the short feathers, just as they draw the scales of a fish or any other 
detail. There is nothing more beautiful in the world than the appearance 
of some flying birds; the spread of wing, 
the gradation of form shown by the illustration 226 
feathers, the regularity, strength and beauty ^ ^,...,.,--»~Sr^^^ 

of movement must impress the most care- ' ,^^ 

less. Children can be encouraged to make .,<::^ /-^ ' '^"■"55 

simple diagrams of flying birds, like the 
pigeon or the sea gull, and they will very 
readily when they see these birds watch "-"^ """^ 

their movements and make visual notes 

of their difi^erent positions when flying. The same is true of birds 
swimming in the water, like the duck, the goose and the swan, — the per- 
fection of living beauty, grace, and fitness. (Illus. 232.) 

The children should be obliged continually to notice the colors of birds. 
I believe we can get more real knowledge of the tints, the tones and shad- 




J64 



Manual-Tratningf Drawing; 



ows, and the harmonies of color from a dead sparrow or a pig-eon or the 
head of a duck than from all the books and stained papers that have ever 
been printed, for the purpose of teaching color. Some colors on birds 
are ravishing. They shine like jewels, and there is a flashing efi^ulgency 
and a delicate iridescence on the neck of a pigeon that will in a measure 
reproduce the soft glowing radiance of the heavens, to the heart who can 

Illustration 227 




Enlarging and Memory Drawings 
Of birds in various positions from sketch book. The original sketches were made from the aeal birds. 



look at it with sufficient love. If there is anything in education that we 
ought to cherish and to nourish, it must be this; to give the children a feeling 
for these things, to touch their emotions if we can, to infect them wdth the 
almighty energy of the love of nature. These experiences help to develop 
desirable phases of character in the young, which are seldom reached by 
other means. Other bird forms are shown on page 179, and elsewhere in 
this book. 

-Bofa/t/ca/i^^r/n5♦— Splendid lessons in drawing and elementary botany 
can be given. Botanical forms are especially beautiful, interesting and 
useful for school work. The simplest leaves and flowers, the commonest 
weeds and grasses, make good illustrations, and the pupils can be led on 



Drawing; From Memory 



J 65 



from the simple diagrams made of these forms to the most abstract and dif- 
ficult scientific work. The difficult nomenclature used in botany can be 
memorized without effort if the lessons in drawing are given rightly. The 
tactual, muscular and visual impressions seem to make the form and the 
name stick more readily in the memory. They can be recalled more 
clearly at any future time. 

Take the horse-chestnut leaf, for instance (Illus. 230). This embodies 
the whole of the laws which are to be desired in some of our work. It has 
perfect grace of form, proportional distribution of areas, radiation from 
parent stem, tangential curvature of lines, even distribution of surface dec- 
oration, repetition, growth and a number of other minor qualities. This 
is also true of an assemblage of leaves, — with their equal arrangement of 
masses, and perfect distribution of group or groups. 

Try to make the students enter into the beauty of these simple forms. 

Illustration 228 




A Lesson m Drawing and Elementary Botany 

Use the real flower forms to dra\v from as often as possible, then memorize the characteristic features, as 
described in Chapter VII. The last, flower form is a cross section of a daisy. Small drawings should also 
be made in pencil and color. The drill work in Manual-Training drawing in the present and preceding chap- 
ters is of wonderful value in imparting the faculty to draw from objects of all kinds. 



J 66 



Manual-Trainingf Drawing 



Do not allow them to create freak units. When we have such a wonderful 
range In nature of leaves, flowers, shells, and so on, it seems foolish to re- 
quire students to make kite units and the varieties of the kite unit, as some 
stupid systems do. If the child is made to produce these forms, they are 
simply wasting valuable time, but the tendency of a great deal of the present 
mode of culture is to create freaks. All the objects of nature are beautiful, 
created for our admiration and for our study. 

For instance, take the leaves in illustration No. 231, — the pedate, 
lobate, crenate, palmate, cordate, dendate, binate, and other leaves. If 
these are drawn, instantly the technical name, the appearance symbolized l^y 

Illustration 229 





Drawing- from Fruit 
Fruit, flowers, foliage should be drawn and memorized. In the spring many kinds 
of blossoms make attractive studies. Branches of foliage alone make useful models. 



the name, is registered permanently. This is a great help to the language 
work of the children, especially when they begin to dissect the plant forms, 
and the work from the many different parts begins to be complex. 

The technical names can be mastered without any trouble, and some of 
these technical names are very formidable, even those describing the ap- 



Dfawingf From Memory 



t67 



Illustration 230 




Botanical Drawing 
In this dra^ving', six stages of the dandelion have been illustrated, with various leaf forms These diagrams 
are drawn from memory. Accurate drawings have previously been made with pencil from the plant 



Illustration 231 





Botanical Drawing 

These cuts are from Webster's Dictionary, and the children memorize the 
technical terms with the form by repetition 



168 



Manttal-Trainingf Dtawingf 



pearance of a simple leaf. I have no trouble even with children of the 
grammar schools in getting them to remember these terms, if they have had 
sufficient practice in making the diagrams and drawings, with, of course, 
the auditory impression of the name associated with the drawing at the 
same time. Understand, I do not mean notes taken at random during a 
long, tedious talk about function, growth or structure of various plants or 
flowers, but I mean the close attention and clear perception of a single plant 
or few parts of the plant, until a complete mental structure or thought-fabric 
corresponding to the plant is erected in the mind to stay. The main thing- 
is to actually do and act through the eye, ear, tongue, touch, muscular sense, 
etc., instead of merely reading about or listening to a lecture upon the sub- 
ject. I have seen so many classes of teachers and normal-school graduates 
who have listened to thousands of facts poured out in a stream, and who 
have filled scores of note books with diagrams and notes, yet who have 
failed to fix in the mind anything about their work. The many impressions 
have obliterated each other and only partial ideas result. 



Illustration 232 




^"•^>^^. iri^«ig|^»««»i^ 



S^vans 
The perfection of living beauty, grace and fitness 



Illustration 233 




Dolphin Forms in Conventional Design 



CHAPTER VIII 

Conventional and 
Symbolic Forms 



J^OLPHINS MAKE VERY BEAUTIFUL FORMS FOR DRAW- 
I } ing- It is very easy to memorize one of the simplest forms, and 
■^"^^ then, by practice, to get faciHty in making this form in various posi- 
tions, as shown above. Do not let the dolphin be feeble-looking or weak, 
but let it be made with good strong curves in all of these conventional 
shapes. It is a good plan to begin with a form alniost as simple as the scroll 
itself (Illus. 234), and then make it a little more complex, in different posi- 
tions, suggesting the mouth, and with crockets for fins and spines. 

The next stage should be to introduce still more detail in the head, 
ptittingreal spines and fins in different positions, as in 235. Then make it 
more elaborate by getting all the characteristic features of a dolphin in good 
proportion and by adding scales, a good tail, form and even with wings, if 
desired. In making these forms for decorative purposes, it is per- 
fectly proper to do anything one pleases in the way of modification. Units 
of design of all kinds can be used in combination with the form; it can 
turn into leaf forms, the acanthus leaf being frequently used in this com- 
bination. 

(169) 



J 70 Manual-Training; Drawing; 

The dolphin's head can be used instead of the scroll termination in al- 
most all patterns, enriching" them very much in some cases. In drawing 
this form in patterns see that it becomes an actual part of the pattern. Do 
not make it look stiff, as though it were added. It should grow out of the 
pattern, or the pattern should grow out of it, naturally. Dolphins, griffins 
and grotesques are never successful and cannot be drawm with much success 
unless they form part of the design. Do not use them too frequently in 



Illustrations 


234-235 




C— ^\ / 






) / 


^— -^ 1 


V w;\ 


/ / 


i i 


-~^^ 4\ 


// 


J J 




// 


/ / 


// 


// 


// 


// 



/ 



n I // 




'^-s 



the same pattern. It is very good practice to make the body take different 
positions for certain purposes, as suggested in the headpiece for this chapter. 

The dolphin is one of the best of all forms for use in wood, clay, stone 
and metal. The fish form must be thoroughly studied to get successful 
dolphins. There is a squirmy appearance about a dolphin that is taken 
from the fish, while the scaly appearance of the body, the eye, the spines and 
the fins are usually fish forms, and the better the fish is known the better 
these forms can be reproduced. To carve these forms successfully, even 
after the form has become pretty familiar by drawing, it is necessary to 
model them in clay several times. 

Grotesque fish forms of simple character can also be made, an instance 
of which is shown in Illus. 233. These are all suitable for designs for 
various purposes. Make the simplest forms first, and as they become 
familiar try the more elaborate ones. Any good book of ornament will 



Conventional and Symbolic Forms 



J7I 



contain dolphin torms, but it is still better to see moaels of the real animal 
in material of various kinds. 

Griffins also are conventional or idealized animal forms. To make 
successful griffins, pupils must understand the character of heads of dogs 
and lions, and the shape of their bodies. Griffins can be winged, they can 
have spines, they can have bodies like dolphins, without legs, or they can 

Illustration 236 




Idealized Animal Forms 
This picture shows more clearly than No. 233 the strength and freedom with which the lines are drawn. 
Advance from the simpler to the more complex. 



have two legs, four legs, and any kind of tail, as suggested in illustration 
236. The wings can be turned into leaves or scrolls, as can any part of 
the body. The griffin is simply an animal form introduced as an element 
of variety, one which allows the introduction of beautiful curves, and which, 
when done properly, will improve some patterns very much. It is a good 



M2 Manual-Training; Drawing; 

plan in learning to draw these forms to originate them, because each one 
should be able to make a dolphin or a griffin with a certain amount of style. 

It is important to begin with the very simple form, almost like a scroll 
and then give it still more detail as one advances in knowledge of 
its characteristic features. These shapes can be made to fill any space, and 
of any proportion. The necks can be twisted in and out, the wings can 
be rudimentary or extended as much as the student may desire. It will 
repay any one to notice the beautiful forms of griffins, grotesques and 
dolphins. These forms will always be good if the essential character of 
the lion or the tiger is grasped. An expression of fierceness is necessary to 
a good griffin. It should never look weak, like a kitten. It is a good 
plan to practice making it fierce and to sketch open the jaws as widely as 
possible. 

To grasp this form practically and to become able to draw it with 
thoroughness, it is absolutely necessary to model and carve a good type sev- 
eral times. There is no better practice in drawing on the blackboard than 
to make, when a little facility has been acquired in making the simpler forms, 
the more complicated ones in the diiTerent positions, — with short wings, 
long wings, wings closed together, wings extended; to make them jumping, 
to make them erect, to make them crouching; to throw the head up, to 
bend it down, to make the mouth stretch open in various degrees. Some 
beautiful examples of griffins rampant can be found in heraldic devices of 
various kinds. Modeled and carved work in many materials will embody 
dolphins and griffins. 

The ^ifd Form is conventionalized in a great many ways. It can have 
the body of a lion or a griffin, and the wings and body can turn into the 
acanthus leaf or any of the variety of units desired. It is much used on 
account of the beauty of the feather forms, the curves of the neck and the 
talons. It is used in ecclesiastical art. Next to the griffin and the lion, 
it is one of the commonest of heraldic devices. It is the national emblem 
or device of various countries. 

To produce these decorative figures well real bird form must be studied. 
There is a fierce expression about the eye and the bill of an eagle, and an 
energy about the legs and claws, that is very beautiful. If these essen- 
tial features be grasped and the form embodied, the resultant form must of 
necessity be beautiful. Some coins have the eagle in various positions 



Conventional and Symbolic Forms 



173 



stamped on them and they can be studied to advantage. Avoid feebleness 
and weakness in design of this character — its beauty depends in part upon 
its strength and virility. 

Illustration 237 




-^1 



Decorative Birds 

These designs are copied and memorized, tlien other arrangements of similar 
forms are made, or entirely original designs are created. 



It will be of advantage to study a wing and the different parts of a wing. 
Some of the arrangements of pin feathers and minor feathers on wings are 
beautiful, and the wonderful way in which they change their position when 
the wing is fully extended, partly closed and fully closed, repays any amount 
of close observation and study. It is a most perfect example of fitness and 
adaptability. 

In drawing feathers, or in modeling or carving them, the main features 
only must be grasped. When we try to put in the detail of each feather the 
spirit is usually lost. The large groups must be put down, the striking 
features and marks, but the detail must be left out. Wings can be ideal- 
ized and conventionalized just as the other forms are, and very great variety 
of changes can be given to them. 

Drawing From Objects.— ChMren should continually draw from 
various objects that interest them. If they have had proper training in 



J 74 Manoal-Training Drawingf 

elementary work, it will be very easy for them to sketch comparatively 
difficult forms with much truth. The birds, flowers, fish, shells, etc., are 
interesting, but it is also important that other forms not quite so entertaining 
should be drawn. 

Great care, however, must be taken not to render the children tired and 
stupid by giving them too many uninteresting shapes. The cubes, prisms, 
cylinders, and other blocks and abstract forms that have been given too 
much to children in the past, actually seem to make them blockheads for the 
time. We must make the young love the work if we wish true art, and the 
greatest art of the teacher is to bring in the uninteresting forms without 
making the children tire of them. Blocks and type forms continually 
administered to the children by stupid teachers, who consider that through 
them they will get a love of nature, are responsible for much of the lack of 
interest and disgust of children for art work. The true art forms are natural 
forms, and God has planted a certain beauty and fascination in some of the 
simplest forms on purpose to inspire love. The truest inspiration comes from 
the common natural forms, and to get the children to love nature, then, is 
one of the chief works of the elementary teacher. 

Children will take pleasure in drawing boxes, books, furniture, boats, 
tools, etc., but great care must be taken not to make them dislike the work. 

It is good practice for pupils to draw different kinds of printed letters 
from type and from memory. Very few people know the actual shape of 
common printed letters in books and newspapers. It is very good discipline 
in free-hand work to space out and draw block letters on paper and on the 
blackboard, being careful to make the actual form of the type without meas- 
uring and without ruling lines. Ornamental letters can also be copied, and 
then original designs attempted, as illustrated in Nos. 238-241. 

In these suggestions for manual-training drawing, it is not possible to 
give details about light and shade, color-work, perspective, etc. Unless the 
teacher really understands these principles, formal lessons should not be 
attempted. No one should attempt to teach these subjects unless qualified 
to do the work. 

Children should never receive formal lessons or lectures in perspective, 
except by continually drawing forms of different character, and then having 
their attention drawn to self-evident facts. Thus the abstract part of the 
work gradually dawns upon them in a natural way. Nothing is more 



Conventional and Symbolic Forms 



175 



Illustration 2-^S 




Exercises in Lettering and Design 

Some of these letters are copied and memorized. Various styles of type should be made, without the use of luling 
and measuring. It is quite difficult to draw simply formed letters straight across the board equal in size and 
spaced correctly. 



Illustrations 239-241 






Colored Designs for Initial Letter 



Made by pupils of manual training classes, Young Women's Christian Association, New York. It is impos 
sible to reproduce in black and white the beauty and charm of these illuminated designs in several colors. 



176 



Manaal-Tralningf Drawingf 



injurious than the lectures on perspective given to some pupils about "angles 
of vision," "vanishing lines," "picture plans," etc., before they are ready for 
them. They tend to obscure the subject so much that I ha^-e known many 



Illustration 242 



H"/ 



These children are memorizing chair forms. 
The chair is placed near by and drawn in 
various positions many times, the lines being 
entirely freehand and not erased until fin- 
ished. The character of the lines is better 
shown in the larg'er 



engraving on page 
177. The perspec- 
tive is not correct 
every time, but 
each time the form 
is drawn a more 
vivid memory of 
the correct form is 
produced and by 
degrees the vari- 
ous parts are 
draini into their 
relative positions 
without trouble. 
To make the vari- 



ous parts oi the chair move into their right 
places on the flat surface is the problem. 
Merely drawing it once with labored detail will 
not enable the child to know the complex form. 
It must memorize the form, by feeling through 
the eye, the touch, and the muscular senses, the 
various positions in relation to the eye. Draw- 
ing from objects of this character has its 
pi-oper place, for it obliges the pupil to express 
through the hand the perception and memory 
of artificial forms as well as natural forms. 







But this jjr.iclicc is not 
allowed at the expense of 
facility and sweeping free 
curves and touches. To 
make the hand spin true 
spirals and accurate 
curves of all dimensions, 
at will, implies a dexter- 
ity that is not only indis- 
pensable, but that is use. 
ful in every vocation. 



Drawing from Objects ia Various Positions 



students to be only confused by the seeming complexity of a comparatively 
easy subject. 

To understand correct perspective is abstract work. It requires a 
certain amount of reasoning, that must only be done after a sufficient 
number of visual and tactual impressions have been made; then it becomes 



Conventional and Symbolic Forms 



J 77 



clear and plain to the dullest pupil. Perspective is very often taught as 
syntax used to be taught in language work — the hardest part first, the rules 
before the words. 

Form is first considered, and then comes light and shade in color. I 
lay great stress upon the pupils learning form by modeling, and learning 
light and shade also by modeling, in Book Three. If possible, pupils should 
be allowed to use light and shade and color in drawing from the birds, fishes, 
shells, leaves, etc., as well as in designing. 

The simplest forms about the house are good subjects for drawing. To 
be able to draw chairs free-hand, as in some of the pictures herewith, is good 

Illustration 243 - 




Freehand Drawing- ui likuis hi \"iirious Positions 
This hirger illustration shows the strength and positions of the lines more clearly than the smaller pictures 
in No. 242. 



practice. Of course, in drawing them on the blackboard only an outline can 
be rendered, but to make that outline free-hand, without erasing, and to 
place the chairs in different positions, is no easy task. If, however, the pupils 



J7S Manual-Training- Drawing 

are encouraged to repeat their poor drawings until they actually get good 
chairs, and then become able to draw them from memory, these compara- 
tively complex forms, and others, can be drawn with considerable ease. 
The perspective is not absolutely correct in these drawings, but to make 
them freely, especially when foreshortened, and when the chair is quite near, 
shows skill and power, particularly when the lines are drawn from the first 
intention and are not changed. 

Animal forms should also be drawn freely, as, in Plate Eleven, the 
pupil trying to get the movements without detail, trying to get the essential 
features Avith the fewest possible lines. 

Symbolism* — Some of the most wonderful art forms in the world are 
symbolic. It is important that we should understand symbolism. Too 
many people see forms in art, decorations of all kinds, without understand- 
ing their import. I do not think one person in a thousand begins to ap- 
preciate why some of the greatest and simplest forms are so interesting and 
beautiful. Most people look at ornament, and at conventionalized and 
symbolic work, as the savage looks at print, — regarding them as simply 
marks, forms, colors, that convey no idea. The mind does not grasp any 
of the thought conveyed. It is important that common people should be 
able to comprehend the abstract idea of these things through observation 
of concrete forms of various kinds. 

Symbolism is a word of Greek origin, and signifies a visible form; im- 
plying something that is in itself incapable of representation. It em- 
bodies a thought that is the sign or symbol of something higher than merely 
meets the eye. It has been used in all times, and some of the most wonder- 
ful as well as some of the most beautiful art work and ornament of all 
periods have been symbolic. Before print was in use, or had come into 
common use, symbols were frequently employed as a means of impressing 
on the multitudes truths that were incapable of being represented by words. 
A sign lifted up meant the same thing to everybody; a statement in words 
could hardly be as generally understood. Symbolism has been used, per- 
haps, most widely in religion. 

Ecclesiastical work of all periods embodies some very beautiful con- 
ceptions. These are symbolized in the simplest possible forms, and grad- 
ually come to mean the same thing to different people. The circle, mean^ 
ing eternity, without beginning and without end; three circles interlaced, 



Plate Twelve 




Bird Forms 
These real birds, with many others, are used as models for the children to work from. They are drawn in 
pencil, painted in water color and modeled in clay, 

(179) 



J 80 Manual-Training: Drawing- 

meaning the trinity in unity, or the three persons of the Godhead. The 
trefoil has the same meaning. 

The cross has been employed in myriad forms all over the world, from 
two sticks crossed to the greatest concepts in art that it is possible for the 
mind to bring forth. It has gradually become the keynote of Christianity, 
which it pre-eminently symbolizes. At one time the symbol of suffering and 
degradation, and forever after the symbol of achievement and vic- 
tory, it to-day forms the ground plan of the noblest buildings, and 
in gold is a fitting emblem to crown their pinnacles. Bejeweled and 
begemmed, and stamped on the books of prayer carried around in 
hands gloved in costly fabrics, the cross has too often lost its 
meaning. 

The nimbus or halo is a symbol. Among the early Christians many 
forms of this were used to symbolize their rites. The Egyptians used it 
almost entirely. Their hieroglyphics are symbols, written pictures, some 
of them embodying very fascinating meanings that should be understood. 
Many living forms have been used as symbols,— the serpent, the dove, the 
eagle and a great many others. It is wonderful to what an extent 
ecclesiastical art has gone in the representation of these forms. Take, for 
instance, the passion flower, which symbolizes the passion of Christ. 
To every part of this strange and beautiful flower has been attached 
some svmbolic meaning. It can be seen used in every conceivable form in 
v.-ood, clay and stone, in churches; even windows, and fabrics of various 
kinds are embellished with it. 

Plaster Models* — The series of vegetable fruit forms and forms illus- 
trated herewith (No. 244) suggest an excellent primary course for young 
children. They can be graded according to the desire or inclination 
of the teacher from the simple forms to the more complex. Each one of 
these vegetable or fruit forms has been cast from nature, endeavor having 
been made in procuring the original forms to get those most typical in 
shape. 

Children should not draw from casts of fruit and vegetables unless it is 
impracticable to provide the real forms. As often as possible, real apples, 
pears, potatoes, and other fruits and vegetables should be furnished for the 
children to study. The forms are also to be modeled in clay. Only by 
doing this repeatedly can organic memories of the forms be made that will 



Conventional and Symbolic Forms 



J8J 



Illustration 244 




Models of Fruit Forms 

be permanent and valual^le. These forms, heads and other models are also 
more attractive to the children than geometric forms and blocks, and inspire 
them with more desire to work and more admiration for natnre. It is desir- 
able to have as many good casts of art and nature forms as possible. All 

Ilustration 245 




iBmw<lfS«iuJHIl!>*ji'Jiji.» «)".v"l 



f 





'Animal Forms 
Tliese plaster models are nearly life size, and with a number of others are used for drawing, modeling- and 



of the models pictured in the various parts of this book are used in my 
schools. Many of the casts are original. 

The casts of animals' heads have been made especially for school pur- 



^S2 Manual-Training: Drawing 

poses. One series is quite small in size, the other series is of life size. Some 
are quite difficult and some are easy. It is best, however, to allow the chil- 
dren to make their own selection. These forms are carefully modeled, and 
in some cases have been made by skillful artists of acknowledged reputation. 
As well as being useful for class purposes, they are especially appropriate for 
decoration of the class room. They should never be shut up in closets, but 
exposed to view all the time. It is a good plan to change their positions 
occasionally, to hang them in different places in the room, or to turn them 
around to show different views. 

In some of the classes, casting in plaster of various forms is done. It is 
good practice, and requires skill to make a fine cast from nature. The work 
is very simple and can be done by grammar grade children who have had 
any manual training work. All teachers should be able to make plaster 
casts of leaves, fruits, fish, birds, animals, etc. Except the original, nothing 
is more instructive than a fine cast of some natural form. The finest detail 
can be reproduced with the utmost fidelity. The time occupied in making 
the casts is almost the only expense, the material costing very little. It is 
well to occasionally encourage the pupils by selecting some of their most 
perfect modeling to be multiplied by casting in plaster. Casts of so many 
things can be made good use of in every day life, the operation is so simple, 
so quickly learned and so educational in value, that it should not be over- 
looked as a minor feature in the course in modeling. 

The Barye casts of animal forms (see page 213), of wdiich examples 
will be found in many of our pictures, are especially useful in the 
class room. They are examples of the w^ork of the greatest modeler of 
animals of the modern period of French art, and are especially appropriate 
to the school room for their fidelity to nature and for a certain amount of 
breadth of style in modeling which makes it easy for the children to repro- 
duce them. In some cases, the partly finished forms afford good illustra- 
tions of how they should be blocked out. The young never tire of these 
noble and interesting shapes. 

Architectural Models* — These plaster models, represented in the illus- 
trations on page 184, will be found very useful for a variety of purposes in the 
schools. I wish it were possible for a series of them to be placed in every 
school in the country. They represent five great styles of architecture, — the 
Doric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, the Roman and the Composite. They are 



Conventional and Symbolic Forms 



183 



ill perfect proportion with the great originals, and should be studied carefully 
till the pupils know thoroughly the essential features of each style, their dif- 
ferences and their resemblances. 



Illustration 246 




Architectnriil Forms 
Drawing from memory -various capitals. These should be drawn entirely freehand. 



It is good practice to sketch these forms freehand on paper and to de- 
lineate them large on the blackboards; to make accurate measurements, and 
to memorize frequently as many things as possible from them. This knowl- 
edge is of great service to all pupils in their after life, whether they become 
architects, technical workers, artists or tradesmen. It will be found that 
one can enjoy the appearance of buildings ever so much more, and that 
one's taste is influenced by properly embodying these forms. The vase 
forms are classic examples of the best periods, and should also be studied 
carefully from the models. It is quite surprising, even to experienced edu- 



184 Manual-Training Drawing 

Illustration 247 




cators, to witness the admirable effect on pupils in the grammar grades of a 
little experience in drawing and modeling typical forms of the great styles 
in architecture. If these units of style are modeled as well as drawn, the 
pupil acquires a far more intimate acquaintance with their proportions and 
peculiarities. 

Illustration 248 




Plaster Casts of Architectural Styles 




BOOK THREE 

Modeling 



Clay models of real fish made by 
grammar grade pupils 



'"Ia^ 



" Perception and memory should be indissolubly associated. Two errors— to expect a child to remember what il 
has never perceived, and to allow it to perceive without any systematic representation of the object in memory." 
[Jacobi. 

" Good thoughts are no better than good dreams unless they be executed."— [Emerson. 
"Without action, thought can never ripen into truth."— [Emerson. 



vl 



X / 



' 1 



\ ^ \ 



\ 



Wood Carving by School Roy 



Illustration 249 



Plaster Model 
For drawing, modeling and carving. 



CHAPTER I 

Introduction, 
Plant Etc.* 



THERE IS ONLY ONE WAY TO KNOW FORM— that is by 
making it, not simply drawing it. If we are to know things as they 
actually are, and at the same time to cultivate an energetic disposi- 
tion to perform deeds, then modeling, clay modeling, must become a part 
of educational work. The greatest artists have been the men who have ])een 
able to model, like Michael Angelo, Donatello, Cellini, Leonardo da Vinci, 
Leighton, Gerome and others. All sculptors have to know form, because 
they have to make it. There are many artists who know form but slightly, 
and that is the reason some of them fail in their work. 

In many art schools modeling is now advocated as a means of teaching 
form, even for painters, engravers and illustrators, for one may draw the 
shape of an object many times, and still not be familiar with its appearance 
all around. This is not the case in modeling, for in this you have to make 
it all around and touch it all over. A vivid impression is gained through 



* All the modeled work in the illustrations, and the tiles inserted in the text, have been modeled by the children 
of the various grades. 

(187) 



iSS Modeling 

the sense of touch and the muscular sense. I have continuahy spoken of 

drawing as a mode of thought-expression. In hke manner modehng in 

clay is a mode of expression, only a more thorough mode than any other. 

Modeling- compels the use of both hands continually. The more we 
J, 
>/ use our hands the more control we have over those organs, and the more 

vital we make the connection between the hands and the brain. In model- 
ing we use several channels of impression, the sight, the touch, and the 
muscular sense. All sculptors get a wonderful sense of form through feel- 
ing or touch; the most beautiful curves and the most delicate portions of 
some statues being made by the fingers alone. All bronze and marble 
statues are first modeled in clay, and then cut in marble or cast in bronze. 
The actual thought of the artist, the real manipulative work, is always im- 
pressed on this plastic medium, that responds to the slightest touch. It is 
this wonderful " feeling" that enables the sculptor mentally to grasp almost 
imperceptible variations and gradations of form that are invisible to the 
ordinary vision. This seeing-power, as it may be called, is partly the re- 
sult of the tactual impressions on the mind. Touch has been considered by 
some to be the master sense, one of the first developed, and few realize its 
importance as a means of training the mind and the judgment. A great 
part of the knowledge attributed to the sense of sight is received through 
the touch alone. 

In these chapters on modeling I have purposely refrained from grading 
the work too closely. The elementary forms suggested for little children 
are just as good for adult teachers or others, if they have never handled clay. 
The exercises on manipulation of course cannot be attempted by very young- 
pupils. The following lessons may be taken in any order desired, and are 
chiefly intended to indicate the variety of things that can be made and one 
way of making them. The lessons are the result of experience with large 
numbers, and the forms given are some of the best for class purposes. 

ihe Pldnt Required for modeling is inexpensive. A board 12x14 ^"^^ 
about one inch thick, a palette knife to cut and smooth the clay, one or 
two modeling tools for each pupil, and one or two cups for w^ater for a class 
are all that is required. Clay can be purchased at any pottery or brick- 
yard. If it is not convenient to get it at these places, it can be purchased 
through any art-material store. It should not cost more than a cent and a 
half a pound, although some dealers charge from three to five cents a pound. 






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t90 Modeling 

It can be purchased in quantity at any pottery for about $20 a ton. This 
clay, used in making pottery, is very fine, clean, sifted and screened, and is 
the kind used by sculptors. Clay in some localities is gray, in others red or 
yellow or blue. The gray clay is the best, but good work can be done with 
the red, blue or yellow. If possible, however, procure the ordinary gray 
clay. 

Good clay is one of the cleanest mediums of which we have any knowl- 
edge. It is antiseptic. If disease germs are placed in the clay and it is 
allowed to remain in the sunlight to dry, the germs become devitalized.* It 
brushes from the clothing with a very few touches, and if the pupils are not 
allowed to scatter it on the floor, when the modeling boards are put away 
no one need know that clay has been used. The children should be al- 
lowed to wash their hands after using it. Like flour in mixing dough, it 
has a tendency to make the hands feel a little dry in the beginning. This 
soon passes away. 

Many teachers object to the use of clay in schools because they say " it 
makes a mess." Only in the hands of an ignorant teacher can it do so. 
No one should attempt to teach clay work who is unable to model. The 
clay must be in good condition every time it is given to the children. Only 
an expert, one accustomed to model, can tell when the clay is in good con- 
dition. It must not be too hard, it must not be too soft, it must not be 
rotten, it must be just right. This can be " felt" only by one who himself 
models. In this series of lessons I propose to illustrate, by means of a few 
exercises, the manipulation and care of clay, the use of tools and appliances, 
and then the making of a series of easy, simple elementary forms suited for 
the very youngest children in primary schools, the exercises increasing in 
difficulty up to the ordinary work of the grammar grades. 

Teachers must not ?ive these series of forms to the children one after 



*The following is an extract from the report of the committee of hygiene of the Philadelphia board of public 
education as to the value of clay modeling, made in 1895 : 

" Your committee would urge as a matter pertaining to the health of the children attending our public schools^ 
the most extended introduction possible of the present system of clay modeling, believing that such inanual training 
is in every respect valuable and likely to be followed by the best results to mind and body. As the Director of the 
Public School of Industrial Art has said, ' No medium better than clay will ever be devised to fulfill the plastic require- 
ments of educational thought-expression, as is witnessed by its universal use in the arts and industries of all nations 
since the beginning of history.' 

" (Signed) Alexander H. McAdam, M. D., Chairman. 

"(Signed) Thomas G. Morton, M. D. 

" (Signed) William K. Mattern, M. D," 



Introduction, Plant, Etc 



J9f 



the other in quick succession. Many of the shapes need to be made a num- 
ber of times, and others of like nature should be given. The series are 
taken from a variety of forms used in my classes, and with some classes of 
normal pupils the entire number can be made in a few weeks. Teachers 
must not cease to remember that the children have several vears to become 



Illustration 250 



«^ 




JT -^ 





' Geometric Forms and Bird Forms 



Bctrinnint;s at Modelint: 



This picture at the rig-ht represents the first attempts of a beginner ten years of age and made at one sitting. 
First the large rosette, then the starfish, then the rosette with loops and then the small cantaloupe. The hands can 
be seen making the loop. The clay has been rolled out to about the thickness of a lead pencil and then is bent into 
position as desired. These pictures illustrate the simplicity of the work and the little plant that is required. 
Almost any object in the garden or the yard can be modeled. 

proficient in this work, and that it is unreasonable to expect fine results at 
the first attempt. This is a constant failing with some teachers; they ex- 
pect too much from little fingers. 

A Good Box for the Cl3.y* — In constructing clay ]:)Oxes. see that 
they are made without any metal or slate lining. There is no sub- 
stance better than wood or clay. In some schools I have seen zinc-lined 
boxes and slate, used through ignorance of this fact. Clay will not stick 
to a wooden surface, it sticks to metal or porcelain-lined boxes like wax- 



192 



Modeling 



Any carpenter can make suitable boxes. Of course the form can be mod- 
ified to suit any sized space in the class room. 

I have found it useful to use a case that runs up like a book-case, with 
shelves that are removable. It should be possible to put the shelves close 
together or far apart, as desired, according to the size of the work. If the 
work is on flat tiles, they can be put within two inches of each other; if it 
forms a large mass, several shelves can be taken out and the work put in 
without trouble. Doors can be put to the case to keep the work secure. 
Its lower part may open with lids. This is for the mass of clay, which 
should be easy of access on account of its weight. A spade can be used 
to keep it in good condition. The box may be made large or small, accord- 
ing to the size of the class or the number of pupils. A box 5x6 feet and 3 
feet deep for the clay part will serve for a class of 200. The clay can be 
kept moist by means of pieces of flannel or blanket spread over it. 

Ulustration 251 




Portion of the Modeling Room, Public School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia 

The room accommodates fifty pupils, five at each table. Eight hundred grammar grade pupils and varioiis 
teachers' classes rotate into this rooi-n. eacji term. 



Illustration 252 




Making a Ball ot Clay 



CHAPTER II 

Elementary 
Courses in Modeling 



TM MANIPULATION OF CLAY.— Take a piece of clay in the hand. 
/m/l I want yon to learn something abont its manipnlation. Roll it out 
between the palms of the hands until it is as thick as the finger and 
about four inches long. Notice when you hold it by one end that it is limp, 
and will not stand erect. Now observe that I pinch the clay together 
and "wedge" it, making it a little firmer in consistency. "Wedging" 
is a potter's term for soldifying the clay in this way. When I hold 
it up you perceive that it will support quite a weight, that it is strong. 
In every piece of work that we make we should endeavor to keep 
the clay wedged. Now I will take the same piece of clay and roll it 
out again two or three times on the board or bet wen my hands. I rub 
it out and then roll it out again. You will now see that the clay is no 
longer plastic, but rigid, and that if I bend it, it breaks. This clay is now 
" rotten," unfit for use. It has ceased to be elastic or pliable. Do not let 
children use it when it is of a consistency like this. " Rotten" is the tech- 
nical name given to clay that crumbles like bread, instead of being tempered 
and pliable, or plastic. It can be improved very quickly by moistening and 
kneading over again, and it is then what is technically called " tempered" 
clay. 

13 (193) 



J94 



Modeling 



The SpiraL — Take a piece of clay about the size of the last joint of the 
thumb. Roll it out between the palms till it is about as thin as a slate pen- 
cil, allowing it to be pointed at one end. Then try to make a spiral (Illus. 



Illustration 253 




The Spiral 

The form shown in this picture and the next is an exercise to test the texture and temper ol clay. If the 
form can be made with a few turns of the fingers, the clay is just in the right state for manipulation. 



r>cT\. You cannot do this at first, but with a little practice you will be able 
to do it well. I have had pupils try to make this form for weeks before they 
suceeded. Others can make it in a few minutes. The more you practice, the 
more skill you will get. Tt is good exercise in enabling you to determine the 
texture and the temper of the clay. When with a single touch and two or 
three turns you can make this form so that it will stand erect, and remain 
without falling, it shows that }-ou can manipulate the clay when it is just at 
the right temper and texture. If it is a little too hard it breaks in a most 



Elementary Courses 



i95 



aggravating fashion. If it is a little too soft it does not stand up. There 
is a happy medium, and the sense of touch must become educated until it 
can feel the proper quality and produce it without any trouble. If you find 
that the clay breaks, put it to one side and try another piece. Do not use 
the same piece twice. When you can make a good spiral, you understand 
the texture of the clay. 

Ledf Forms* — Take a piece of clay about as large as the last joint 
of the thumb, and roll it out in the palm of the hand until it is spear-shaped 
or resembles a spear head. Now take the form between the fingers and 
thumbs, as illustrated in 254, and beginning at the tip, with both hands make 

Illustration 254 




Leaf Forms 
Exercise for manipulation of clay. 



a leaf form. This is a little difficult at first, but with practice each pupil 
can make a midrib, show each of the veins and the serrations on the edge 
of the leaf, leaving it thick in the center and thin on the edge. At first there 





'm, ^■ 


^-" 




Mi 
















Vsr*'*^,,. 





S96 Modeling 

is a tendency to break and crumble the edge, but when it has been attempted 
a few times the fingers will respond and a very good leaf will be the result. 
This is a good exercise in manipulation. It compels the use of both hands, 
and the complex form is the product. 

Circutdr Forms* — Take a piece of clay about as large as the thumb 
and roll it out between the palms until it makes a good, slender roll about 

four or five inches long. Now bend it 
and make both ends meet till it forms 
a ring. Then by the use of the fingers 
alone manipulate the clay so that the 
joint will not show and so that the 
ring is true and even all around. This 
is another good exercise, and one 
that requires skillful handling. It 
is still more difficult to make an- 
other ring interlacing with this one. 
Hints to the Tea.cher* — When 
the children are making these forms do 
not allow them to break the clay in pieces; let them keep it in a lump except 
the portion they are using. Allow no crumbs to fall about the board, the 
desk or the floor. All the pieces must be put back in the main lump. If 
they are rotten, they can be placed at the left by themselves. From the 
very beginning, resist the tendency of the beginner to " make a dirt.'' In 
a few lessons it will be found that pupils can model elaborate and complex 
forms without dropping or scattering the clay at all. It is simply a habit 
of neatness that must be taught, and if insisted upon from the beginning 
there need be no trouble with the " propensity to make dirt" that is wrongly 
attributed to clay-work. 

When the children begin to make good forms do not allow their work 
to be destroyed. Place all pieces made on a shelf to dry. Then if they 
are not kept permanently, they can be sorted out, the good ones given to 
the pupil to take home and the bad ones mixed with the main mass in the 
clay-box. The same mass of clay can be used for years in this way, and 
continue perfectly healthful and free from any odor. Never allow the clay 
to remain for long periods in a damp state unused. If it is not to be used 
for a few months, permit it to dry. It can readily be moistened again when 



Aiouldintr ;i Circular Konii 



Elementary Courses 



J97 



required. The damp from the clay yields a musty and moldy odor which 
is not pleasant. If the clay is constantly used, it Avill keep fresh and sweet 
indefinitely. Covering with a moist, clean cloth will prevent drying. 

Do not attempt to keep the clay in a crock or a tin vessel. A wooden 
box is far better. I have clay boxes in some of my schools that have been 
in use for fifteen years, and except that the bottoms are a little decayed, they 
are as good as new. 

Tiles and other unfinished work should be kept on wooden shelves 
in the clay-box or closet. If possible in the class room devoted to 
modeling, shelves or ledges should be put around the room, on which 
finished work can be placed. In this way in a very short time the rooms 

Illustration 256 




First Exercises, Making Balls, Rosettes, etc. 



can be decorated with creditable work produced by the pupils. This is 
inspiring to all and makes the place look like an art workshop. 

Eletnentdry Forms* — The following are suggestive of the simplest 
forms that can be made from clay w^ithout the use of tools, for the most 
elementary classes. Make some balls, by rolling the clay in the hand, about 



J98 



Modeling 



the size of a large marble. Groups of these can be made. Make groups 
of three, groups of four, groups of five. Make a pyramid, make a star, and 
so on. Children of six years of age and upwards take pleasure in making 
these forms. 



Illustration 257 



"■*«;» 



jl£mi~^ .Mt: 








i 




First Exercises in Modelinfi 



Other forms can be made by taking a piece of clay and rolling it out 
about as thick as a lead pencil and about four or five inches long. Make a 
little loop. This can be combined with others, making the following forms. 
(Illus. 257.) Little rosettes can be made by adding a center. Do not let 
the children make crumbs or pieces. Instruct them continually to keep 
their clay together and see that it is in pei-fect condition. It must be cjuite 
soft for very little fingers, and still not soft enough to stick. Make no at- 
tempt to do anything with the clay when it is sticky. Disgust is sure to fol- 
low if it is handled in that state. 

Many simple rosette forms can be made. Make a form about the 
size of a small marble and then press it till it is nearly flat. Make a 
little disk or center. Combinations of these can be made. Make the 



Elementary Courses 199 

same form a little pointed at one end. A large series of rosettes can be 
made with the addition of a little ball or boss for a center. Bend the 
leaves up, make them cup-shape. Make some with points. With some 
thought an endless variety of these forms can be devised which will give 
a great deal of pleasure to the child and variety to the lesson. Be care- 
ful not to let the children tire of any of the forms. A teacher of course can 
make one of these forms in a half-minute, but for very young children tw^o 
or three of the forms are quite sufficient for one lesson. 

A number of natural forms can be made. Roll out a piece of clay into 
a ball, about the size of a marble. Press it till it is nearly flat, make a little 
stem by rolling out another piece, and we have a very good imitation of a 
mushroom. Bend the top over the stem a little and stick it on the board in 
a standing position. Make several sizes, forming a group. Easy fruit 
forms can be made by rolling out pieces till they form a ball about the size of 
a marble, then putting long stems to them, making bunches of tw^o and three 
like cherries. Plums can be made with the small stems. 

Animdt Forms* — An interesting series can be made from various 
animal forms. Of course these must be reproduced from memory. It is 
wonderful how cpiickly the children grasp the idea of form after a few lessons 
in making these elementary shapes and how soon they get an amount 
of detail. But do not expect them at the first few lessons to master detail, 
since they begin to apprehend this only after they have taken notice of 
things, through the desire to make them in clay. Do not mind how pool 
the forms are the first few days. 

Let us begin with a chicken. Take a piece of clay about the size of a 
small hen's egg. This wall form the body. Now take another piece of 
clay and roll it in the palms till it is about the size of a small marble. Place 
this on the Jarge piece for the head. Next add a Httle piece of clay for the 
bill, two dots or two little balls for eyes, and a few marks on the side for 
wings. If desired, a very short tail can be pinched out at the end. This 
can be made with a few touches to look like a very small chicken. 

Next we can attempt a little duck form. This is more complex than 
the chicken, and can be made about the same size. Make the neck longer 
and give it a nice curve, make the bill a little longer and thicker. The tail 
can be made longer, and the wings marked a little more carefully. 

A somewhat similar form can be made to represent the swan. It has 



200 Modeling 

a body of the same shape as the duck, rather a httle larger, Avith a long 
curving neck, which needs to be made separately and fastened on the body. 
See that there is a double curve in the neck and that it bends back over the 
body. Give it a nice swan's neck curve. Two wings can be made by 

Illustration 258 



Elementary Forms in Clay 
All of these forms are suitable for very young children, and are first attempts made by beginners. 



flattening out some clay, and they can be pressed onto the sides of the body 
so that they stand out. The result looks much more elaborate, but it is 
quite as simple to make as the chicken or the duck. 

Understand the object of these lessons. It does not matter how 
grotesque these forms are at the start. The early art work of all races of 
people is grotesque and their products are often examples of how children 
should or do draw in the beginning. Very many adults, as well as chil- 
dren, cannot recall the shape of a duck in the beginning, but no one can en- 
deavor to make it from memory without memorizing, he next time he sees 
a duck, a swan or a chicken, some part that he had never noticed before. 



Elementary Courses 20 J 

A specially valuable part of the lesson is the fact that it compels one to mem- 
orize form. If I am modeling a frog from memory, and do not know the 
number of toes, I may make three, four or live, but the next time 1 see a 
real frog I will satisfy myself on that point and fix that knowledge so firmly 
in my mind that I am not likely to forget it. 

Usually I do not tell my children details of this kind. I prefer 
that they should learn the truth by investigation. Some people do not 
know how many toes a dog has, or a chicken, or a canary. If they are 
compelled to draw or model the form from memory, they discover 
their ignorance, and by observation of the real form they learn to 
grasp the detail. So it is with little children. At first the forms 
will be very crude, but when they begin to make things that they 
have investigated, it is wonderful what an amount of detail they will em- 
body. Remember, these are simply generalized forms. Imagination is 
the result of a series of impressions. It is only when we have received a 
sufficient number of impressions through the difl^erent sense channels that 
we begin to be able to represent the essential facts of form. This work I 
sometimes call compulsory memory work. 

Children should be encouraged to make clay figures of any kind they 
desire, clay horses or sheep or men and women, like the Mexican toys which 
imitate these figures. They should be allowed to give expression to their 
feelings and imagination with the pencil in making horses, bufl^alo, Indians, 
etc., ships, war vessels, etc. They will often be found to draw them with the 
same character and simplicity that the Indians do. They grasp essentialities 
and ignore details — the first thing desired in good work. 

Other Animal Forms* — A starfish is a good form to model. Make 
the five tapering members first, about the same size, by rolling out to a 
point, and then join them in the center. Bend the form till it assumes a 
natural position and make the detail with the tool. Make several sizes of 
this form. Do not make them so large that they cannot be modeled with 
the fingers. 

A snake about six or seven inches long is very good practice. Roll 
it out first in the hands and then on the board. Let it taper to a fine point, 
make the head a little thick, the neck a little thin, flatten the head, make 
the features, mouth and eyes with the tool, and then bend in a natural posi- 
tion. A good plan is to coil it with the head standing erect as though it 



202 



Modeling 



Illustration 259 





Modeling the Snake 



were going to strike. Another good position is to curve it, as though it 
were moving along the ground. A snake makes a series of heautiful 
curves in moving, and very nice forms can be made by modehng. Make 

two or three. In the L^egin- 
ning, of course, only the 
most elementary kind of 
forms can be made to sug- 

lessons 



.Q:est a snake, but as the 
progress w i t h 
practice the body can be 
thickened a little in the 
middle, tapering to the tail, 
scales can be modeled, a 
forked tongue can be placed 
in the mouth, and so on. 
Children are fascinated by 
thesesmall living forms, and afterafewattemptsgrasp many unnoticed details. 
The fish form is one of the best of all shapes to make. Roll out a piece 
of clay about the size of an egg till it is a little pointed at each end, flatten 
slightly between the two hands, then add the pointed tail, making it quite 
sharp and thin on the edge. (Illus. 261). Let the body be thick in the 
middle and taper to the tail. Make the two dorsal fins thick near the body 
and tapering to a thin edge. Do the same with the pectoral fin on the side, 
and with the anal fin underneath. The gills can l)e marked with the tool 
and the eye can be pressed in with its point, or a little ball can be made to 
represent the eye, stuck on and then modeled. The mouth can also be 
made w^th the tool. 

There is an endless variety of beautiful fish forms. In making this 
elementary fish form, however, a very simple shape can be selected, a gen- 
eralized fish, or a typical fish form if you wish. A very realistic effect can be 
made by putting the rays and spines on the fins and tail with the tool. The 
scales can also be marked, and if the fish is curved a little it will look quite 
realistic. Numerous pictures of modeled fish ocur in this work. 

A small frog can be made. Take a small piece of clay, roughly shape 
it with the fingers about the size of the body of a medium-sized frog. The 
mouth can be made with the tool, two little balls can be stuck on for eyes, 



Elementary Coufses 



203 



the rough places on the 1)ack can be modeled with the tool, then the two 
hind leg's can be made. Make the legs bent in the position of a h-og sitting 
down. Then make the two little fore-feet with smaller pieces of clay, add- 
ing the toes last. 

Next make a small turtle. Do not mind if some of the children have 
not even seen a turtle or cannot recall the number of feet it has. Make the 
body about the size of an egg, flatten, cut the division between the two 
shells with the tool, make the cavities for the four legs, a cavity for the head 
and another for the tail. Make a pointed tail, make a head something like 
a snake's head, partly flattened, and then the four flippers. Of course the 
teacher should be able to make each one of these forms quickly as a sug- 
gestion to the class, giving some idea of the size, and as much detail as pos- 
sible. The pupils, however, are not to copy this model. They can look 
at it and recall the mental image, as far as they have gained one. of the turtle 
or tortoise. 

A lizard makes a good form to model. Roll out the body just as we 



Illustration 260 




Modelintr Various Natural Objects 



form the body of a snake, make the tail taper to a point, make the neck a 
little thin, flatten the head, form the mouth, eyes, etc., with the tool. Then 
the legs can be formed by smaller pieces of clay bent and added onto 
the sides. 



204 



Modelingf 



A little mouse can be made. Model the body, then add the long tail, 
the two ears, make the detail with the tool. If desired the feet can show 
peeping out from beneath the body. 

These small life forms are suggested because children are especially 
fond of them, and although the product will be very crude at first, impres- 
sions are being made that cause the children to become very attentive to the 
forms when they meet with them again. Their ideas unconsciously become 
clearer and more vivid. Remarkable instances of observation of detail will 
constantly be made by pupils from particular forms that interest them. 

, Illustration 261 



^'■ 



■ f^'^— «w' 



a^g^<p'l!!H#!Wk 



Elementary Modeling of Animal Forms 



Vessel Forms* — A good exercise is to make a little vessel form. 
Take a piece of clay about the size of a small egg, press it in the center till 
you form a cavity, bending up the edge all around at the same time with the 
fingers, till it forms a hollow, cup.-shaped form. (Illus. 261.) Do not let 
it become flat like a saucer. Make the base by pressing it on the board, 
and, by rotating it a little between the four fingers and thumb, it can grad- 
ually be made small and cup-like. Do not let it be thick and thin in places. 
Smooth away the little hills and hollows, and resist the tendency of the cup 
to spread out. Let it be about i inch or i } inches in height and perhaps 2 
inches in diameter and about f inch thick. This is a splendid exercise for 
manipulation. Work with it till the rim or top is a good circle. Let the 



Elementary Courses 205 

base form a true circle. This requires a little more manual dexterity than 
one would think to make it good in shape. Endeavor to make the inside 
smooth and the rim a nice flat edge all around. Make different sizes. With 
a little practice small vessels for various purposes can be made, — little basins, 
bowls, vase forms and so on. If these forms are allowed to dry, they can 
be fired and glazed in any pottery for a few cents each. Beautiful little 
vessel forms suitable for pin trays, flower receptacles, salt cellars, match 
safes, etc., can be made. 

Next take a piece of clay a size larger than that used for making the 
cup, and make a small shoe. The pupil can imitate a wooden shoe, or 
slipper or boot. Press in the cavity for the foot with the thumb and fingers. 
The point can be made to turn up, in the usual manner of a wooden shoe or 
Turkish slipper, or any other shape can be made as desired. Draw the at- 
tention of the children to the fact that the foot is wider in front than at the 
heel, and so on. It is w^onderful what a variety of shapes the children can 
make after a few lessons. They will put rosettes of different kinds or 
buckles on the front, and sometimes make the shoe to button or lace. It 
requires the merest kind of suggestion to make the children observe in a 
very little while all kinds of shoe shapes, and to reproduce them. That is 
the object of the lesson, — to compel observation. A very good plan, if the 
children are making realistic shoes, is to draw attention to their own. Let 
them look at the foot and the shoe. Let them see how narrow it is at the toe or 
the instep. Let them look at the shape of the heel. This form also makes a 
nice little receptacle for pins or flowers, if fired. Allow the pupils to keep it 
when it is satisfactory and is not too rough. 

The next form may be a bird's nest. Take a piece of clay, roughly 
shape it by making the cavity with the thumbs and fingers, working it 
around in the hands until it assumes a cup-like form. Now place it in the 
middle of the desk or modeling board, and with the tool make the ragged 
edge. Try to imitate the texture of the sticks and grass, and then bend the 
edge over till it is about the size of a nest. Do not let it be too regular, 
make the form irregular. Allow some pieces to stick out in an accidental 
fashion. Three, four or five eggs can now be made and placed in the nest. 
Be sure the_v are of the same size. (See Illus. 260.) 

Take a piece of clay and make a rough tree, stump. Pull up the edges 
to form the ragged stem of the tree. Let it be hollow and cup-shaped. Let 



206 



Modeling- 



niustration 262 



the edg-e be very irregular. Pull out a few roots, or model one or two more 
pieces of clay and add them for roots. Be sure they stick on, and that 
the clay is incorporated with the main mass. Do not simply press the piece 
on, but incorporate it with the tool so that when it is dry they will not fall 
apart. Do not make the roots or rootlets look like legs. Let them be ir- 
regular, one on one side and two or three on the other. Make the texture 
of the bark with the tool by a series of short, irregular marks. This also 
forms a very nice little receptacle for flowers, pins or matches. 

A small basket may be made. Take a piece of clay, press in the cen- 
ter, making it hollow, and raise the edge; let this be about as thick as the 
cup form that we made. The basket can be made square, oblong, or ellip- 
tical, as desired. Roll out a piece of clay, bend it over, make a strong 
handle. Do not make these handles too thin. In modeling never make 
anything thinner than the h.and'e of a small teacup, — a fine China teacup. 

Anything smaller than this is siu'e to 
break with liandling. The texture 
of the basket can be imitated with the 
tool. This makes a nice receptacle 
for various purposes. All of these 
% forms can be placed on tiles, slabs or 
plinths. 

In making a tile (Illus. 262) take 
a piece of clay, press it in the center of 
the modeling board, then take another 
piece and add to it, incorporating 
one wath the other. Do this contin- 
ually, turning the piece of clay and 
pressing it flat till it is about the de- 
sired size. Do not allow the clay to 
stick to the board, fingers or tool. When you have a rough piece made 
about the size or a little larger than the size you desire, take the knife and 
flatten it. Keep turning the tile continually and give it plane surfaces by 
pressing it against the board with the knife. When it is flat enough and of 
even thickness, draw with the point of the knife on the top the size of tile 
you desire. It can then be cut with the end of the knife blade. Do not 
cut with the entire blade of the knife; use the end of the knife and let it pass 




A Modeled Tile 

The pupil has completed the design in clay and 
now trimming the uneven edges from the tile. 



Elementary Courses 



207 



through the clay so that there is Httle friction. (Illus. 262.) When the 
children have a little more skill and desire to keep the forms they make, it 
is a good plan to mount them on tiles, — the animal forms, the fruit forms, 
rosettes, etc. 

Illustration 263 



,<^^ 



f^ 



--/■WB«Sie6«vV*»S*'315;?'!e!HEt-Vlt>» - 



The Real Bird 
Directions for modeling birds from the real, or 
other animal forms, are given in Chapter VI o'" 
this section. Work of this kind is much more 
advanced than the elementary exercises in this 
chapter. 



In making these elementary 
forms simplicity of work is one of 
the things to consider. Remem- 
ber, the entire work is chiefly to 
compel the children to think of 
and to memorize form. Children 
instinctively endeavor to give 
expression to thought in all directions. 



Mode 



in Clav from Birds 



The panel below has been mod- 
eled, from the real bird shown at 
the left, by a pupil of the grammar 
grade. It is quite a good tile for 
such a young pupil. Perfection 
must not be expected from the chil- 
dren, especially when they have 
had but little experience. But the 
eagerness with which the children 
stiive to faithfully imitate nature, 
and their enthusiasm over this con 
tactwith the real thing, are by no 
means the least valuable character, 
islics developed in the young by 
the natural education. 





The Clay Model 



The mind is worked upon 
and developed through the senses by externals, and it is to compel this union 
of thought and action that we make these seemingly trifling exercises.* 



* Ideas are, on the efferent or motor side, nascent movements — that is, intuitions of such movements as have 
been performed; on the afferent or sensory side, they are images of the sensory impressions which have been expe- 
rienced, the revival of such sensory impressions on the occasion of a suitable external stimulus being 2)erception.— 
[Maudsley, Physiology of Mind, page 443. 



208 



Modeling; 



Many adult minds are paralyzed or wanting in certain directions at maturity. 
Never having been required to perceive accurately, they do not remember 
correctly, and so they cannot judge soundly or imagine truly. As I have 
repeatedly quoted, " accurate perception and exact memory are the funda- 
mental bases of sound reasoning and imagination." Do not be troubled 
if the results are not artistic. They are sure to be pleasing to the children, 
for children are like savages in some of their stages of development. 

Many people speak of the necessity of art atmosphere in the school 
room, and in some places or cities fragments of the antique, — statues like 
the Elgin marbles, the frieze from the Parthenon, the Venus of Milo, etc., 
— are placed in the school room. 

I find, however, that these forms do not impress the children. I would 
rather see the same money spent on natural forms — real butterflies, birds, fish, 
shells, good specimens of minerals, etc. We must make the children love 
nature at first hand. We must inoculate them with the desire for beauty 
through the real living forms in nature. Then, later, we can expect some 
result when they come in contact with the great art works, — the thought 
of great minds expressed in concrete forms. But it is useless to put before 
their eyes the perfection of Greek art unless we first give them the hunger 
and thirst, the vital love for beauty as it is exhibited in every natural flower, 
leaf, and shell, and in the various living forms that attract and fascinate the 
young. 




Various Leaf Forms, Models 



Illustration 266 




Clay Modeling' 
Modeling- original designs on a curved surface. Grammar grade children. 



CHAPTER m 

Modeling- Fruit and 
Veg-etable Forms 



TP RUIT FORMS MA-KE A GOOD SERIES OF OBJECTS to work 
J ^ from. Endeavor to have the real fruit if possible. We can start 

with an apple. Let the children take up the apple in their hands 
first and observe its shape. Draw their attention to the stem end, how deep 
it is; to the blossom end, how shallow it is. Let them continually handle 
the form, during the lesson. It is good to study the colors of fruit forms. 
Draw their attention to the beautiful shades and hues of green or red or 

14 f209) 



210 Modeling- 

yellow, as the case may be, on the apple. Make them aware of the facts 
before them by speech as often as possible. Take a piece of dry clay and 
roughly shape it in the fingers. Do not let be too large, — make an average- 
sized apple. Some of the apples will be large and some small, but it is best 
to choose one of medium size. Do not let the children make any of the 
forms in miniature. It is very absurd to see a lot of apples modeled by a 
class, as small as cherries, to see grapes modeled as small as peas or currants, 
and pears as small as strawberries. In every case let the children make the 
forms about the average size of real fruit. 

Use the tool now to make the form smooth, working it all over the 
apple without scraping the clay. Mold it. Do not allow clay to stick to 
the tool or to the fingers. Be very particular about this. It is a sign of 
error if the children have clay on the wrong side of the fingers or sticking to 
their hands anywhere; or if it is sticking to the board, the tool or the knife. 
The clay must be made compact, by often caressing it with the tool. 
It is somewhat difficult at first to prevent the tool from scraping the 
clay, but with a little practice it can be done. Do not mind if the form 
is a little rough or shows the tool marks, in the beginning. Remember, 
this is simply to get dexterity with the hands and the tool. We do not 
care for the product of the first efi^orts. 

Make the cavities at each end with the tool and endeavor to keep the 
convex curve like the model. One or two little touches with the tool will 
give the appearance of the blossom end, and then a little piece of clay rolled 
out and inserted will form the stem. Let it stick to the side of the apple 
so that it will not break ofl^ when dry. There is a great deal of character in 
the stem of an apple. It is usually short and thick, therefore do not make 
the stems too long, as is frequently done. It is absurd to see apples with 
stems almost as long as cherries. Do not let the children use the stem of 
the real apple in the clay apple, as they are frequently taught. This is sim- 
ply trickery. Any child able to make an apple will take pride and pleas- 
ure in making a good stem to it. The only people I have found who com- 
plain of certain of these exercises being too difficult for the children, are the 
teachers who could not make the forms themselves. 

Continually draw the attention of the children to the minor facts of 
form visible on the apple, and by degrees they will perceive, apprehend and 
reproduce these forms. Do not, except in special cases, perform the work 



Ffult and Vegetable Forms 



2n 



for the pupils, but make them consider the form for themselves. It is the 
idea of an apple that you wish them to assimilate. The clay form or prod- 
uct is not of much consequence. Think of this continually. It is the 
concept of apple firmly locked into the mind in all its various aspects 



Illustration 267 




Plaster Casts for Modeling 
When the real fruits or vearetables are not available. 



through the senses that you desire to produce. It is a very good plan at 
the end of the lesson to let the pupils, if the lesson has been satisfactory, ac- 
tually assimilate the apple and test its gustable qualities. This adds to the 
permanent impression, remember, and is a very good lesson, and one that is 
usually enjoyed. It will do no harm to speak of the structure and the text- 
ure, the color and the taste of the apple at this stage. 

Illustration 268 




Vegetable and Fruit Forms for Modeling 



Another point to speak of before we leave the apple is, not to allow 
the children to make freak forms. Usually in a large number of apples 
there are one or two that are very much distorted. Draw attention to the 
typical apples. It is not necessary in the beginning for the child to make 



212 Modeling 

all the accidental kinks, creases or curves that are on the apple. It will be 
sufficient if they make a good generalized form in the beginning. 

The Pedf — Is more complex than the apple and requires a little 
more, thought and care. See that the pupils have good models, nicely 
shaped pears. It is better to have a few good ones for the class, even if 
they cost more, than to give out a lot of poor shapes that are perhaps cheap. 
Take a piece of clay, roughly shape it like the pear, depressing it at one 
end. Use the tool to smooth the surface, as described in making the apple, 
always getting the main form of the pear first with the hands. Do not 
make the forms too large. It is the tendency with all beginners to exag' 
gerate the size. 

Do not hesitate to take the tool in the left hand continually. It feels 
very awkward in the beginning, but in all modeling the tool has to be used 
sometimes with one hand, sometimes with the other. Later on, in large 
forms, the tool is held a great deal with both hands. Notice that the blos- 
som end is not so deep as in the apple, that the stem end has a distinct 
character, and that the stem is usually a little longer than the apple stem. 
Of course there may be exceptions. Notice also the difference in color of 
the pears and in the texture of the skin, some pears being quite rough in 
texture, others smooth. 

With a little practice texture can be imitated very successfully. The 
smooth chubbiness of a tomato can be rendered; also the texture of cloth, 
velvet, fur, and so on. Of course at first the children can not try for any of 
these qualities. I simply mention them to show the possibilities in clay, it 
being the most plastic medium of which we have any knowledge, and one 
which, for that very reason, has been used by sculptors from the beginning 
of history. 

Hints to Teachers* — Make the children handle the model, let them 
look continually at it and compare it with the one in their hands. Invite 
them to observe other pear shapes, show them the typical ones from the 
number that you are using. By this time you will find that the children 
are unconscious!}' using either hand and that they are actively busy with the 
touch, the vision, the muscular sense, in the work of assimilating impres- 
sions. In doing this work, also notice that they are overcoming awkward- 
ness, for at first, when the tool is used in the left hand, it will feel and look 
verv awkward. That, however, is soon overcome. 



-. H 



d ^ 



n 2. rt- 






a 3 




Tl 



214 Modeling 

It is habit only that compels the arbitrary use of the right hand in many 
operations; and the habit of using' both can be just as easih^ taught.* Par- 
ents begin the wrong way by compelling children to " take the spoon in the 
other hand, dear;" to hold the pencil or fork a certain way; to change the 
scissors if they happen to pick them up with the left hand. Surely it is 
o-ood to be able to cut with one hand as well as with the other. I have 
never yet found a doctor, dentist or scientist, or skilled user of instruments, 
who does not agree with this. In fact, they say that to be able to use both 
hands is a very valuable capacity. 

The Bdndtld* — Take a piece of clay, roll it out, make it four or 
five inches long. Some bananas are very large, but the large sizes are dif- 
ficult for the children to handle. As we have learned by experience, 
the medium sizes are the best for practice. Try to make the planes by 
drawing; the tool or the finger from one end of the banana to the other. 
Sometimes they are four, five and six-sided. Try to grasp the character, 
to apprehend the main forms. The shape is a little difficult to make at 
first. Draw the attention of the class to the color aand other characters. 
Other forms that can be made are the peach, the lemon, the plum, the 
grape, and in fact any available fruit. 

Fruit Tile* — A good lesson and a very simple one is to model a tile 
with a branch of fruit forms on it, making the twig, the fruit, the stems 
and the leaves. Make the tile about eight inches long and about four 
inches wide. Do not trim the tile till the fruit forms have been modeled. 
If you trim the tile in the beginning the edge will be scarred or marred be- 
fore the form is finished, and then it has to be trimmed again. Leave that 
for the last thing to do. Take a piece of clay, roll it out about the size of a 
lead pencil, about three inches long. Shape the end of the branch, allow- 
ing it to be a little thick at the lower end and tapering to the top. Place 
this in position on the tile. Then add another piece about the same length 
and also tapering, and bend it to form the shape of a branch or twig. Con- 
tinue this from one end of the tile to the other. 



* Habit— self-respect, self-help, application, industry, integrity, all are of the nature of liabits, not beliefs. Prin- 
ciples, in fact, are but the names which we assign to habits, for the principles are words, but the habits are the 
things themselves— benefactors or tyrants, according as they are good or evil. It thus happens that as we grow 
older a portion of our free activity and individual! y becomes suspended in habit— our actions become of the nature of 
fate, and we are bound by the chains which we have woven around ourselves.— [Smiles, Self-Help, page 404. 



Fruit and Vegetable Forms 



2J5 



Next make one or two branches. Make these branches fork out in a 
reahstic fashion. Be sure the clay is thoroughly incorporated with the 
main branch. Use the tool to do this, also to incorporate the stem or 
branch on the tile. A few little digs with the sharp end of the tool will 
unite them and then the marks made can be removed by a little modeling. Im- 
itate the bark of the cherry tree on the stems or branches and allow the 
branch to bend up in one or two places. Next make two or three cherries 
of the natural size. Place them in position to form a group. Then make 
the stems; let them be of the right length, 2 inches or 2^ inches long from 
the cherry to the branch. The cherry stems of course must be made much 
thicker than they are in nature, about as thick as the handle of a very fine 
teacup. It is a little difficult to incorporate these thin stems to the main 
branch and to the cherry without breaking, but with a little practice it can 



lliustrations 269-271 





Casts of Leaf Forms 



be done. Bunches of three cherries can be made, placing one on top of the 
other two, and the stem placed in the same way. Make one or two bunches 
of cherries, as desired. 

Lastly, make leaves as described in " Elementary Modeling," and en- 
deavor to get the fine points, the serrations, the midribs, and other features 
with the fingers before placing the leaves in position. Bend each leaf so 
that it will look as natural as possible. Allow the edge to curve up in one 



2J6 Modeling: 

or two places. Make several leaves in this way. Cherry leaves are long 
and slender, two, three and four inches long and about one inch wide. Place 
the leaves in different positions to see the effect before incorporating them. 
This is quite important. 

Make d Composition* — Four or five leaves will be enough for this 
small tile. Then take a tool and incorporate the leaves carefully with the 
branches and with the background of the tile. See that they are well sup- 
ported underneath. If necessary, block them up with clay so that they have 
a solid backing connecting them, though invisibly, with the background. 
Ahow the edges of the leaf to be quite thin, but let the body of the leaf be 
thick and strong. A leaf can be made to look as thin as paper by making 
the edge sharp though it really may be half an inch thick. Allow the 
leaves to curve naturally, and do not place them at regular intervals. It 
is a little difficult at first to prevent their looking like pieces of tin. This is 
a very good exercise for young people, because even though it is roughly 
done, the product usually pleases them. 

An apple with a branch and several leaves on a tile is a very good ex- 
ercise (Illus. 272). Make the tile first, then the ap]Dle, as described in our 
first exercise; place the apple in a natural position on the tile. Then in- 
corporate it so it will not drop ofl^ when the clay dries. To do this, press 
part of the apple firmly into the tile, and then remodel with the tool the 
parts marred. Next make the piece of branch of the apple tree about three 
inches long and place it in a natural position near the apple, making the 
stem reach the apple. 

Next model a few broad simple leaf forms and attach them in a group 
to the branch. Take care to make the leaves look as natural as possible. 
Let them be thick in places, and where the edges show, allow them to be 
sharp to suggest thinness. To give strength make all the parts solid that 
cannot be seen. Never attempt to make things too thin in clay, like leaves 
or stems or twigs. It is better to make them solid down to the 
slab, rather than to have them so thin that with a touch or two in hand- 
ling they break. Try to show the curved surface of the leaf and the serra- 
tions with the tool. It is a very good practice in composition to arrange 
these little groups. 

Two peaches, with branch and leaves, also make a very good exercise. 
Make the peaches on the tile first, side by side. Next make the 



Fruit and Vegetable Form 



217 



branch and then the leaves. Try to grasp the character of the leaf forms 
and the arrangement. 

These exercises are very good in learning to fit form on a surface, and 
also for giving the children a great deal of pleasure. For these forms, of 



Illustration 272 




^* 




Modeling Fruit from Nature 

This picture illustrates another child modeling an apple on a branch, with leaves, from the real form 
out in the open air. The table is a box with a board upon it; two modeling tools and a knife only being 
used. First the tile is made, about seven Inches square, then the apple is modeled in the hand. As soon 
as it is the right size and with a certain amount of finish, it is incorporated on the tile in the usual 
fashion; then the stem is made, and lastly the leaves. It is very good practice making the character of 
the branches ; they are quite rugged and have distinct textures. The same is true ol the leaves ; the apple 
leaf is a broad one and finely marked. In making a tile like this, the leaves can be made solid, then the 
edges can be slightly raised and undercut. 



course, models may be used. If you cannot secure the real fruit, stems and 
leaves, casts can be purchased at a very low price. The teacher should 
have models of this kind that she has made from real forms herself to show 
the pupils. 

Vegetable Forms*— Let us begin with the potato. A potato has a 
rough, irregular shape, but still it has its own essential character. Have the 



2J8 Modeling 

children make a typical one; take away the unreal shapes. Make the 
eyes of the potato with the tool. Let them study the model in their 
hands, and draw their attention continually to facts. Do not let them 
miss any of the characteristic features of the potato. The form wnll stick 
in their minds when they reproduce it with the tool. I cannot resist the 
tendency myself when I am talking to my class to interject a stream of facts 
and fancies about the forms we handle. Splendid ideas can be grasped if 
the teacher is awake. It need not be a lesson in modeling only, but in many 
other things. The surface texture of a potato is quite different from that 
of fruit. Make the children apprehend this. But because potatoes are 
familiar forms and easy to get, do not tire the children with them. Lead 
them to appreciate the tints or coloring of the potato. 

The carrot is a little more complex. Do not let the carrot look like a 
parsnip or a radish. Let the form be of a handy, medium size, and make the 
texture marks with the tool. Seethatthe children apprehend the texture. Do 
not let them make simple cuts or jag marks. Give them a little time to 
grasp the detail. Have them handle the model as much as possible, since 
much information is conveyed to the mind through the touch. Do not try 
to model the top or the leaf part of the carrot. Let it be cut off, just 
showing the stem. This can be modeled with the carrot or added on. 

The Tomato* — Take one that shows the typical form. Some are 
very much distorted and some do not have the features clearly marked. 
Make the divisions with the tool. The stem end will be found a little 
difficult. Have 'the children make the leaflets separate and add them on. 
It is difficult in making the ridges to prevent the form from looking like a 
little cantaloupe. Do not place the ridges too regularly. Use the tool as much 
as possible in making the texture. It is very smooth and gives good prac- 
tice. 

These vegetable forms may seem trifling in their value as a mode of 
compelling thought, but very few adults realize the shape of even the most 
ordinary vegetables, simply because they have never consciously assimilated 
through the different sense channels all the facts about them. Their im- 
agination is not vivid because their impressions have not been distinct or 
clear. The slight percepts that they have fade away, and it is surprising to 
find how many pupils there are even in adult classes who show that they 
have not the beginning of an idea as to the shape of an egg or a grape, if 



Fruit and Vegetable Forms 



2J9 



they are requested to shape it without the model. We can create talent and 
capacity in the dullest people by teaching them observation in this way. 
There are plenty of people with good eyesight who go through the world 



Illustration 273 




A More Complex Form for Modeling- in Clay 

It is wonderful with what fidelity the children may reproduce even a whole branch in clay, with all its fruit and 
leaves. One work of this kind will impress the pxipil with many of the fascinating lessons Nature offers so bounti- 
fully. When an important composition has been well modeled, it should be fired, and may also be multiplied by 
plaster casts. 



without seeing anything, and there are many with very poor eyesight who, 
aided by observation, notice many things. Modeling compels observation, 
perception, reflection and conception. 

The Turnip *~M3ke a medium-sized one, pinching out the root and 
modeling on the opposite end a part of the leaves. The variety of*. form we 
have among root crops is wonderful, and it is by receiving these vivid im- 
pressions, through making them, that we are fully impressed. The 
texture, structure, color and form of the commonest, simplest vegetables 
are valuable as lessons, if we can organically and permanently register them 
without wasting the time and energy of the pupils. Some turnips have 



220 



Modelingf 



beautiful tints of color and shading; some are a little rough in texture, and 
others, like the Swedish turnip, are quite smooth. 

Hitch on to your lesson as many facts as possible. Do not let the^work 
become drudgery. Many other vegetable forms can be given, but do not 
let the pupils tire of any one. Give them variety. We all need it to keep 
our faculties and our interest in trim. It is a natural craving that we have 
for new fields to conquer. It is not right to teach only a few set forms 
continually instead of the variety that Providence provides for our special 
study and delight. The children cannot readily eat the raw vegetables, so 
that you must make up to them for it by giving them more food for thought, 
taking extra pains to make the accompanying talk both interesting and 
instructive. 



Fluster Model of Shield 




Models of Plaster Capitals 



CHAPTER IV 

Modeling 
Geometric Forms 



rHE SIMPLER GEOMETRIC FORMS can be readily modeled 
into shape. They are not very pleasing or interesting, but they 
yield useful and necessary lessons, and in teaching little children 
this is the only palatable way in which these uninteresting exercises can be 
served. The child's awakening mind can grasp only what it sees, — an abso- 
lute thing, and here we give it the opportunity to grasp geometric form 
itself directly, not through a needless definition. 

It is wrong to tire the children with these abstract shapes. The 
geometric forms are essential and necessary at certain stages of education, 
but to present them continually all through the various grades creates in- 
tense dislike. Except for modeling a few times, they should not be used 
in the early stages. I have known children to be completely spoiled for art 
work by having these unmeaning forms presented to them so often. 

Experience teaches that there is a feasible size for these geometric 
forms. In some schools they are made very large, and in others much too 

(321) 



222 



Modeling 



small. The best way will be to make the forms of a size that can be readily 
grasped by little children and made without the use of tools by the two 
hands alone. Many of the geometric forms can be seen in the pictures in 
Chapters I and II of this section, also on page 231. They are shown about 
the proper size they ought to be made. 

The Sphere* — Take a piece of clay and roll it in the hands till it forms a 
ball about i| inches in diameter. It is quite difficult to make this a true 

Illustrations 278-280 



J / 



5 , 



y 



1 .•( 






X— ILJ eL- 




Models of Pilaster Panels, Italian Renascence 



sphere, but by manipulation with the thumbs and forefinger, rubbing away 
the hills and making the rough places plain, and then rolling it between the 
palms again, a good sphere can be produced (Illus. 252). In making this 
series of forms it is advisable to have the pupils place the forms as finished 
along the top of their modeling board or desk. 

71?^ Cube* — Next make another sphere similar to the first and of the 
same size. This can only be done by comparing the two. Place them 
side by side and take away or add clay till they are equal. Now take the 
second sphere, and tap it on the board till a plane about one inch in diameter 
is made. Next turn it over on the opposite side, parallel to the first plane, 
and make another plane in the same manner. Be very particular to have 
the pupils endeavor to get these planes really parallel through observation. 
Let them continually look at the form in their fingers. 



Geometric Forms 



223 



Next tap two more planes opposite to each other, and then two others, 
making- the six-sided cube. It is a very good exercise now to make these 
planes merge together by tapping on the flat board until the form is a 
true cube, with sharp, clean corners and each plane equal. To do this with 
any accuracy requires constant attention. Make the children pay attention. 
This is an excellent form for teaching a number of very desirable qualities. 
Resist the tendency, especially if there is a large class, to tap the cube care- 
lessly on the board. Be sure that it is grasped correctly, and that the 
children continually look at the form. Pay strict attention to position. 
See that the pupils sit constantly erect, keep their heads level and take 
inspiration. 

If they have to look at the cube in their hand, let them hold it up. Do 
not let them tip and turn the head to look under it. If you wish to see 

Illustration 281 




Reducing- Acanthus Leaf Forms 
Antique model. The work is placed upright on an easel, for convenience. 



things straight, you must look at them with the head level. Do not expect lit- 
tle children to make very sharp corners or very correct cubes in the be- 
ginning. With practice a perfect cube can be made if the clay is in right 
condition, with sharp edges and fine corners. Any teacher can perceive 



224 Modeling 

that to get these six planes equal in size with the hand and eye alone is good 
training. To do it a few times is also pleasing, but it is not wise to tire the 
children by giving them the geometric forms continually, as is so foolishly 
done in many schools and even in the kindergarten. 

In this work of modeling, we are using the master sense of touch, aided 
by all the others working in unison. This form of representation produces 
a healthy activity of the perceptive faculties that is valuable. Here we are 
dealing with form itself, actually making it. ' We are getting all around our 
subject and are in this way made conscious of all its peculiarities. We are 
getting accurate perception, which precedes exact memory, by performing 
deeds. It is this quality in sculpture which raises it above painting and 
drawing and places it at the head of the creative arts. It is for this reason 
that sculptors' drawings often possess those characteristics of strength, bold- 
ness of line, truth, which can come only from a thorough knowledge of the 
subject, gained during many years of contact with form, not simply by look- 
ing at it, but by actually making the forms. 

We never really know form until we have attempted to reproduce it a 
number of times in the solid. One of the chief objects of these lessons is 
to impress this fact on the pupil while studying and trying to make these 
objects; even though the object is not well made, you are really gaining 
mental development, you are making these things a part of you to the ex- 
tent that you gain just perception of the thing modeled. You are assimilating 
concrete knowledge through several sense channels and must become richer 
in mind for it.* 

T*he Cylinder* — Take a piece of clay and roll it out between the palms 
until it is about one inch in diameter. Gently tap each end on the model- 
ing board. Let the cylinder be about two inches in height. It is quite 
difficult to get the ends smooth and flat in the beginning. If it is rolled 
too much, a hole will form in the end. Use the tip of the finger or the 
thumb and fill the hole, and gently pat again until you have a true circle 
at each end. Resist the tendency to make it too long. If it is too long, 
pat down until it is short and roll again. Place the cylinder next to the cube. 



*"The human brain is an organized register of infinitely numerous experiences received during the evolution o\ 
life, or ratlier, during the evolution of that series of organisms through which the human organism has been 
reached." — [Spencer. 



Geometric Forms 



225 



The Square Prism* — The next operation is to repeat the same 
cylinder. It is a Httle more difficnlt to make this one match the 
other. Then take the second one, and by tapping on opposite sides, as in 
forming the cube, make four planes, converting the cylinder into a square 
prism. Do not make it too long, but let it match the cylinder in size. The 
chief difficulty will be that it tends to become too long. Keep tapping it, 
and continually observe each plane, till it becomes a good square prism, then 
place it by the side of the cylinder. If you have a large class, notice that 



Illustration 282 




Modcli 



He Lid 



This picture shows one position ot the h-.inds in modeling' a head. The thumbs are 
" feeling" the form near each eye. Scvilptors frequently model portions of the figure with the 
fingers alone. 



there is a tendency to rap the forms on the board without looking at the re- 
sult. Make the children look to see what they are doing. Do this con- 
tinually. 

^he Cone* — Take a piece of clay, roll it out in the hand so that it be- 
comes of a cone-shaped form, and pat it on the end, to form the base. Make 



226 Modeling: 

the form in the hands roughly first, and then use the flat board. It must be 
rolled till it makes a perfect circle on the base. This form is difficult and 
compels the use of a good deal of manual dexterity. Do not make the 
cone too high. The tendency with all beginners is to make spear points 
or little steeples. A great many of the cones used as models have this 
fault of form. 

Let the cone be the same height as the cylinder and square prism. As 
soon as it is finished to your satisfaction, place this product beside the square 
prism. Then start another cone and make it of the same size as the first 
one. Notice in making these forms that we have made a pair and turned 
the second one each time into something else. It is very good practice for 
gaining size and proportion, to make one like the other. The second cone 
we will turn into a square pyramid by tapping the planes on the board. This 
is still more difiicult to keep in shape than the square prism or the cube. 
The base must be a good square, and the four sides must taper to a point 
and the pyramid must be of the same height as the cone. 

Many olher geometric forms can be made. The series given, how- 
ever, will be sufficient to illustrate the process. The forms suggested are 
the result of many years of experience with numbers of children and teach- 
ers, and, if the operations are performed properly, must result in valuable 
training. Do not tire the children with these forms. Remember con- 
tinually that they are abstract forms. In the higher grades, when the 
children are studying geometry, they will have plenty to do with them, but 
do not disgust them with abstractions, as is so frequently the result in those 
schools where geometric forms are reproduced year after year till even the 
sight of them is abhorrent. 

Notice that I have made this series of models to present a series of 
transitional steps, each one a little more difficult, and that the forms can be 
made without the use of any instruments or tools. Children will take great 
pleasure in modeling these forms a few times, and that is the reason we give 
them in the beginning, just as we give blocks to play with. But the essen- 
tial things are natural forms. 

In teaching, never mind the abstractions, continually think of the im- 
pression that you desire to make on the mind through the eye and the 
hand. If the impression is clear and distinct, the form will be clear and 
distinct. If not, it will be cloudy and nebulous. In talking to teach- 



Geometric Forms 



227 



ers, continually speak of the co-ordination of the mind and senses, the tac- 
tual, the muscular and the visual, and of the power of observation this work 
gives one, thus enforcing the acquisition of exact knowledge. Teachers 
must realize that they are not simply working in clay, modeling common 
forms in common clay, making " dirt pies," as some ignorant teachers sa}^, 
but they are molding the human mind, they are shaping the " stuff" out of 
which immortal souls are made. 



'kMlkJj 




• f\ 




Models of Various Borders 



in 



Qh 




J= a. 



.2 -g B 

-K^ c o 



go 



O 
O 

o 
CO 



-a ^§ 

— ' O w 

0- eg- 

c ^^ 

o c ^ 






o 
U 







A Shell Form for Modelins 



CHAPTER V 

Modelingf for 
Grammar Grades 



/N MODELING THIS SERIES OF FORMS the pupils vAU pay 
])articnlar attention to making fine curves, and getting- clean, sharp 

detail and perfect backgrounds, — that is, making the tile of even 
thickness, with sharp, true edges, and so on. These forms are also good for 
grammar-grade pupils, and have been tested for many years with thousands 
of children. The entire series is the result of much care in selecting forms 
that will do the most good in the shortest space of time. The forms are 
graded in accordance with their increasing difficulty, and include the 
elements of the best styles. 

The single forms must be made thoroughly well by the children, and 

then they can be used in combination. It is not necessary for the pupils to 

make the whole series. As soon as they have grown expert with the scroll 

(229) 



230 



Modeling 



Illustration 288 



and the leaf, combinations in the way of decorative tiles can be made, using 
both leaf and the scroll. As soon as the anthemion and scroll have been 
made, these can be similarly combined. As soon as one of the rosette forms 
has been mastered, it can be used in combination with other forms. The 
same may be done with shells, the Moresque unit, the Saracenic unit, etc. 

In Making the Scrolls (Illus. 288), build up a good solid tile at least 
one inch thick and six or eight inches square. Do this with the hands alone, 

piece by piece, as described on Page 206. 
Do not allow it to stick to the board. 
When it is about the right size, make it 
plain and smooth by means of the knife, 
but do not trim the tile till the form is 
finished; let the rough edge remain to pro- 
tect it. The last thing done should be to 
cut it square and true when the entire 
ornament has been modeled. Now take the 
end of the tool and draw on the tile a good 
scroll, similar to the one illustrated. 
Practice doing this many times. It can be 
rubbed out with a touch of the palette 
knife. The freehand drawing on the clay 
surface is excellent practice, and with all my classes, adults and children, in 
the beginning I invariably have them sketch the form for five or ten minutes 
freehand, since at first it may be a little too large, then again it may be too 
small. Illus. 289 shows a child making the single scroll in clay. 

Make the scroll so that it fits and fills the space. Let the ball come 
near the center of the tile. As soon as you have a satisfactory drawing, 
take a piece of clay, roll it out about two or three inches long and about as 
thick as the finger, and place it on the drawing. Then take another piece 
and place it in the same position, continuing until you have the scroll 
roughly formed with the clay. Next, take the tool and press it into the 
piece of slab and endeavor to get the curves. The raised edge in the mid- 
dle of the modeled form is the first thing to get. That is called the " mod- 
eled line." Press away the surplus clay and try to swing the tool around 
the whole length of the curve from one side to the other. Make long, con- 
tmuous touches. The clay must be exactly right in consistency. If it is too 




A Srcoll in Clay 
With another scroll flowinsar out from it. 






? o 



T1 

O 



C/5 



»- r» r-;- 



CT- 


3 


m 


•-h 






2 


C/J 


rt. 


rf 





3 


P 


a. 


2 


P 






00 

3 






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3 




CO 


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3 


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P 


3" 




3 


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3 


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CO 



232 Modeling 

soft it will stick to the tool. It is better for it to be a little too stiff in the 
first place than too soft, especially for the tile itself, although of course the 
harder the clay the more difficult the form is to make in the beginning. 

Grasp the tool in both hands as illustrated in most of the pictures show- 
ing pupils modeling. Of course the hands move about in different posi- 
tions as the tool moves. At first it will' be quite difficult to sweep the 
curved end of the tool from one side to the other, making half the circuit or 
even the whole circuit with a single sweep, but with very little practice 
manual dexterity will be acquired that will enable you to make a single 
touch continuing all around the scroll with ease, swinging the tool back and 
forth on the curve. Notice in doing this that vou are actually drawinsf in 
material. Do not mind how rough the work is if you can get this swinging 
movement. Resist the tendency to scatter clay crumbs on the work, keep 
all pieces in the hand or in the main lump. The form or raised edge must 
be equal in height all over the tile; do not let it be thick in one place and 
thin in another. It is quite difficult to get this quality at first. As soon 
as the curved surface of the scroll has been made, then the form can be 
clearly cut out by vertical cuts on each edge of the scroll and the sur- 
plus clay removed, keeping the tile flat and smooth. 

It is not easy to work in the center around the ball, to get into 
the corners, to keep the edges sharp, at first, but with practice this can be 
done. Do not mind the tool marks showing at first. We do not want 
the work finely finished or polished. Try to make the curves as true as 
possible. Eventually, the longer the swing of the tool, the truer and better 
the curve will be. Do not let the curved lines look as though they were 
bent. 

This is excellent practice in getting the hands to swing curves, and it is 
by modeling and carving these forms that we enable our children to draw 
them with such boldness and facility that it surprises outsiders who do not 
know of the work they have been through. All our children make these 
forms. I cannot recall now, among the many thousands of pupils I have 
had, one who was unable to draw, model or carve these conventional forms 
if he learned how to do it in this way. Of course if pupils have been al- 
lowed only to draw, or to model, or to carve, I am sure many would be un- 
able to draw the forms; but being required to do the three things in rota- 
tion, one after the other, they get a manual dexterity that makes the form 



Coufse for Grammar Grades 



233 



Illustration 289 



organic, and enables the hand in the end to make the form automatically 
— without conscious thought — as can be seen from the v^arious illustrations 
showing forms modeled by pupils, where the scroll is shown in combination 
with other forms, sometimes ten and twenty times over. All the units of 
styles, and most of the drill form units, are modeled and carved as well. 
Any one can see what a great help this is in making forms organic. But 
when we have actually, through the 
sense of touch, made the form in soft 
material and then actually by hard 
struggling made the same form in 
tough wood, it is a very easy matter to 
draw it on paper or the blackboard with 
the hand as firm and with a line as clean 
as though it were being made by a steel 
bar. This facility of hand, this manual 
dexterity, this control over the nerves 

and muscles of the hand, so that 

these instruments shall do as they 

are directed l)v eve and mind, — ( 



a^ 




One Position in Holding Modeling Tool, while Turning a Scroll 
Both hands are used and work equally, the tool changing position constantly— sometimes the concave side being 
used, sometimes the convex. Endeavor to make free swinging touches as long as possible : do not allow the hands 
to rest on work. In the above picture, one hand rests to enable photograph to be taken. 



are among the highly desirable objects of manual training that can never be 
attained by the limited exercises of mere shop practice. Wood carving is of 
wonderful value in accomplishing this hand training and character growth. 



234 



Modclingf 



Illustration 290 



The Rosette Form* — The next form illustrated (page 235) is the 
rosette. ]\Iake a tile eight inches square, as described before. First draw 
the rosette with the tool freehand, making it to fit the tile. Make the center 
of the rosette in the middle of the tile and then the four leaf-like forms 
one after the other. Do this entirely freehand. Do not make construc- 
tion lines. Rub out the drawing with the knife and practice the drawing 
of the rosette several times. Then start with the center boss. Let it be 
about one inch or one and one-half inches in diameter. Be sure that 

the clay is incorporated in the tile by mixing 
the boss with the substance of the tile, so that 
it will not drop off when the form is dried, then 
model the surface with the tool till it is a true 
hemisphere. It is quite difficult at first to swing 
the tool over from one hand to the other in 
making this curved surface, but by persisting a 
little it can be done almost from the beginning. 
Next we make the four leaf-like forms, 
shaping them roughly in the hand first. Let 
them be about one inch thick, sloping down to 
the center or boss, shaped almost like a large 
tongue. Make all the four forms before 
you place them in position and see that they are equal in size. When this 
is done they can be placed around the center boss. Squeeze the forms into 
position, being sure that the clay is roughly incorporated into the tile. If 
it is simply pressed on the tile, it will be sure to drop off when the tile 
dries. All these directions are not only essential to making a good tile, but 
such thoroughness helps mind and memory. 

Remember this: The clay mitst always be incorporated, one piece of clay 
worked into the other, if you wish it to hold together. It is very exasperat- 
ing to make a number of forms and then when they dr)^ up to have them 
fall apart. This is usually the case unless care has been taken every time to 
incorporate the clay with the main mass. Each piece as it is put on should 
be made one with the parent piece. 

Now the rosette must be tooled into form. It has been roughly 
shaped with the finger, and now we take the tool and make the cup-shaped 




A Complex Rosette 



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236 Modeling 

hollow on each leaf with a single stroke if we can. Pass the tool over the 
surface of the leaf many times and then over each of the other leaves. Do 
not turn the tile. 

The object in this exercise is to make the four leaves in four different 
directions while the pupil keeps the same position in relation to his work. 
See what a wonderful amount of muscular co-ordination is required to turn 
the hands, both hands guiding- the tool, in such diverse positions. Perhaps 
we can make the leaf cpiite readily and easily on the right side, while it is 
very difficult to make it on the left side. Perhaps we find the lowest leaflet 
quite easy to make, then we find it quite difficult to make the upper ones, 
with the same movements reversed. We must, however, resist the tend- 
ency of the pupils to turn the tile around, thus making all the leaflets in the 
same way, and allowing the hands to make only those few movements 
which they find easy to acquire. Remember, this work is educational, and 
the object of this lesson is to enable the hands to make the physical co- 
ordinations all over the complex surface in the different directions. When 
your hands can move readily with ease all over these four leaflets without 
awkwardness, it indicates a great amount of manual dexterity. 

Do not mind the form being rough in the beginning. Make the edges 
sharp and clean, let the tile be smooth and flat. Make a good broad edge 
on the leaf. Do not hesitate to make the touches all over the leaf many 
times. Do not expect it to be finely finished with a few touches. 
The touches must be repeated. Do not finish up one leaflet at a 
time, making it very fine and smooth all over. Roughly finish the whole 
series, and then go over them again. Avoid finicky, small, feeble touches. 
Avoid picking the clay and making small pieces. Model or mold it into 
shape with a few free touches. In modeling a form of this kind, if clay has 
to be removed from the tool, we do not pick it off and place it in the main 
lump every time, but add it rather to a piece which we keep in the hand. 
When we need to add more clay, or have to remove it from the model, it 
can be taken from or added to the lump in the hand. The last step is to 
trim and square the tile. 

Position of Toots*— I have purposely made a number of pictures to 
show the different positions of holding the tool in modeling and carving. 
There is no one special hold. The tool is changing from one hand to the 
other constantly. Experience will give the natural hold. Of course it is 



Course for Grammar Grades 



237 



Illustration 291 



difficult to get the movement from the pictures .and the print alone. See- 
ing it done by an expert is the best way. In teaching, the teacher should 
go from seat to seat illustrating movement on each tile or slab, if necessary 
making one leaflet or part of one leaflet occasionally, the pupil looking on 
and learning. 

The Leaf Units* — For the three-pointed leaf form (Illus. 291), make 
a tile, on the tile draw the leaf with the point of the tool, making the ribs 
first and then the double curves forming the outline. Practice this a num- 
ber of times. Make the leaf to fit the tile. Encourage children as much 

as possible to make these quick drawings on 
the clay, for position, before beginning to 
model. Next take a piece of clay, and 
working with both hands, make the leaf 
form about three-eighths of an inch thick 
in relief. Make the stem also. Get the 
entire shape in the rough, with the fingers, 
in the beginning. Be sure that the clay for 
the leaf is thoroughly incorporated with the 
main mass, and that each piece you add is 
also incorporated with the adjoining surface. 
See to this in all cases, so that the model will 
not come apart in drying. 

Properly worked together this way, the 
clay tiles and models should be durable, quite strong and lasting. Unless 
they are struck or allowed to drop, they can be kept any length of time. It 
is good to have shelves in the class room on which to place these forms. In 
most of my schools all the walls are completely covered with the work of 
the pupils. We do this so that they can get ideas from the work exhibited, 
and at intervals we allow them to take their productions home and place 
others in their stead. 

Next take the tool and roughly make the depressions on the leaf, first 
for the midrib and then for the side ribs. Let these touches be bold and 
free. Then model from the center towards the edge, making the undula- 
tions on the leaf. Next make the double curves on each side, beginning 
with the middle leaflet. Do not finish one part,- — work all over the leaf. In 
shaping the leaflet on one side, do not completely finish it, but make almost 




A Leaf Tile 



238 



Modeling- 



Illustration 202 



every other touch on the opposite side. In this way you will find that you 
gradually model balance. 

It will help a beginner to look at the pictures of some of the modeled 
leaves in this book, to see how the texture is produced and also how the 
carved leaves are made. Do not put in very fine detail in the beginning. 
In making the serrations on the leaf, model each leaflet separately, first on 
one side and then on the other. Hold the tool in both hands in doing most 
of this work. Very rarely is the tool held by one hand alone, it is nearly 
always guided by the other hand. The same is true of the chisel in carv- 
ing. This form can be varied, a five-pointed 
leaf can be made in the same way and quite 
a number of other shapes can be based 
on it. 

The Moresque Form is quite difficult, 
although it looks so simple in outline. In 
making this, first spend some time in draw- 
ing it. It is a little difficult to make this 
form fit the tile. Do not make it too small, 
let it be about the proportion of Illus. 292, 
Take a piece of clay, fill in the surface of 
the form piece by piece with the fingers until it is about three-eighths of an 
inch in hight. Allow the form to be a little larger than the one you intend 
to make. Try to keep the double curve on the large blade showing clearly, 
letting it taper to a fine point. With very little practice you will find that 
you can get good forms with the fingers alone. With the fingers the clay 
can be thoroughly incorporated and made into a solid piece. Now take the 
tool, and, beginning with the stem, make a single plane from one end to the 
other with a sweeping touch. I want you to draw this double curve repeat- 
edly on the soft clay, compressing and flattening it at the same time. Repe- 
tition will in time compel accuracy, until the hand is able to make these 
swinging lines quite automatically. 

Next we will make the other plane, allowing the modeled line to show^ a 
beautiful double curve, the modeled line being the raised edge in the middle 
of the form. Swing over this curve a number of times, then try the curve 
on the inside or short blade, swinging around from one end to the other 
repeatedly. Next on the outside edge. As soon as these planes are satis- 




The Moresque Unit 



Course foi* Grammaf Grades 



239 



factory, then with a single touch cut out the form, beginning with the large 
double curve, then making the other side of the blade, and lastly the short 
curve. This is one of the most difficult forms to get properly and still one 
of the most satisfactory to make when practice gives facility. The entire 
form should be made with a few strokes when dexterity has been acquired. 
Do not make finicky touches. Allow the tool to swing from one end of 
the unit to the other each time, holding it in both hands and pushing away 
the surplus clay or adding on, as is needed, from a piece in the hand. Feel 
the form with the tool and draw it out. Next clean up the background 
and see that the stem is narrow. Much attention must be given to the 
raised edge, the modeled line; for although when the model is flat on the 
table this does not show very plainly, it is the most important line on the 
model, and when it is in position standing up, it shows more distinctly than 
any other. 

Tike Scroll and Crocket* — Make the drawing of the complete scroll 
first (Illus. 293), allow it to fill the tile, and then add the crockets, one to 
each corner. Make this foi'm repeatedly till 
it fits the tile. At first it will be a little too illustration 293 
small and seem a little crowded. Give five 
or ten minutes to the drawing. Then take a 
piece of clay, roll it out about the size of the 
little finger and place on the drawing, incor- 
porating the clay piece by piece till the entire 
scroll is covered about three-eighths of an 
inch thick. Make the form a little thicker 
than it is intended to be. Now add on the 
crockets, forming the curve and the tip with 
the fingers. Let every member of the class ^^^^^^ ^^^ cror-ket 

block in the entire form with the fingers 

before using the tool. Then take the tool and place the plane or curves on 
the surface from the tip of the crocket, gradually merging them with the 
curves of the scroll. Notice that finally the concave curve of the crocket 
must meet the convex outer curve of the scroll; and the convex curve of the 
crocket, the concave line of the scroll. Pass the tool repeatedly up and 
down tin a nice curve is made all around the scroll, curving out each tip at 
the right place, pushing away the surplus clay with the tool, and adding it 




240 



Modeling 



to the main lump in the hand. The curve around the center boss is dif- 
ficult to produce in the beginning, but with practice it can be done with a 
few touches. Then make the curve inside the scroll. This can be very 
much curved or almost flat. At first it would be better to make it a little 
flat. 'Try to swing this from one end to the other with as few touches and 
with a movement as continuous as possible. 

Next cut out the form down to the tile with the tip of the tool, draw- 
ing the shape of the form repeatedly and removing the surplus clay. The 
pupil must be very attentive in doing this work, otherwise the scroll can be 
spoiled very quickly. The crockets make the form much harder to model, 
owing to the curve being interrupted, but with a little practice crockets can 



Illustrations 294-296 






Plaster Models for Drawing, Modeling and Carving 



be thrown out in any direction without any trouble. Later on the double- 
curving crocket and other forms can be introduced on the scroll in the same 
way. 

Combination of Scrolls and Leaflets* — To make two scrolls in clay 
flowing one from the other, is good practice. A leaf tip can be modeled 
coming out of the center. To make this form fit the tile, and to curve the 
scrolls gradually, one from the other, with single sweeps of the tool, is capital 
manual training. Combinations of different forms can then be attempted, 
and balanced designs made for various purposes. 



Course for Grammar Grades 



24J 



The c^nthemion is perhaps the most diflicult of all the elementary 
forms and takes the most time in the beginning. (Illiis. 298.) Make a fnll- 
sized tile. Make the drawing a nnmber of times first, endeavoring to get the 
form to fit it. Roll out the lobes in the hand, beginning with the center 
lobe. Numerous lobes can be made as illustrated in Book Two, Chapter 
IV. Be sure that they taper to a fine point, and as they grow slim towards 
the base let them also grow less high in relief. Bend the side lobes so that 
they curve and balance nicely. Make the lobes match. This is a little dif- 
ficult at first. Try to get a good curve to each one; show the gradation 
in the form. Try to feel with the fingers the magnitude of each lobe. 

Begin tooling with the center lobe, push away the surplus clay, and 
make it taper to a fine point. It is difficult to prevent the stems or pipes of 
the lobes from running into one another. Beginners cannot help this at 
first. To keep all these stems gradually curving in to the center and to 
get them to diminish gradually recpiires a great deal of skill. Do not ex- 
pect fine results in the beginning. Hold the tool firmly with both hands 



Illustrations 297-298 



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Scroll und Leaflet 



Anthemion in Clay 



and model each lobe from side to side. The widest part of the lobe will be 
the thickest. The form must be blocked out roughly in the beginning 
with a few large touches to get the approximate bulk, and then it must be 
modeled over again several times, each time getting a finer finish. 



242 



Modeling 



Do not expect good results the first time/'' Any one making this form 
can realize what excellent discipline it gives in attaining dexterity and phys- 
ical co-ordinations. Do not allow the children to turn the tile, keep it in 
one position throughout the entire lesson. Of course if I were to move it 
from one side to the other and to keep my hands in the same position all 
the time in making each lobe, it would be much easier to model. But re- 
member, the object of the lesson is to get the skill that is given to the hands 
when they become able to move with facility all over the complex form. 
Pay particular attention to the stems, clean the spaces between the lobes, 
cut the tile true. This form is much used in carving, modeling, and draw- 
ing, and it is one of the best of all the units of design for its union of beauty, 
balance, proportion, grace, etc. 

Illustrations 299-301 






Various Arrangements of the Antheniion 

The Curved Ledf^ — ( lllus. 302.) First, make this fit the tile. Make 
the drawing a number of times. Do not make it too small; allow 
it to fill the tile. Block in the form with the fingers, as described in makingthe 
other forms; be sure to keep the eft'ect of the double curves. Allow the leaf to 
be nearly half an inch thick in the thickest part, while the back of the leaf 
tapers down to the tile. Model a large double curve on the back of the 
leaf first with the tool. Try to make the surface undulate. Keep the 
double curves of each leaflet true and try to make them with a single touch 



*"The reiietition of good action generates the habit of doing well, function developing construction, and the 
bfihit of doing- well generates a moral feeling in regard to said action, which it becomes fit last a pain to go against," 



Courses for Gtammar Grades 



243 



of the tool. The spaces between the leaflets should also be made with a 
single touch of the tool. Get the texture on the surface of the leaflet 
representing the small ribs, then finish with a narrow stem. To make this 
leaf with graceful curves, so that it appears to swing nicely, requires practice. 
Try to prevent a thick and clumsy appearance of the leaf. The tool marks 
will give very good texture to leaf form. This can be made much more 
complex, showing more leaflets. 

Simple Shell Forms* — The real scalloped shell (page 235) can be con- 
ventionalized as desired. Make the drawing, get about the proportion and 
size, and then add on the clay, making the shell curve up, being sure that it 
is incorporated on the tile. Repeatedly speak of this to your pupils. It 
is very uncomfortable to find a shell form hke this, for instance, come ofif 
the tile, when it dries, especially if a lot of careful work has been placed upon 
it. Try to get the halves of the shell to balance with the thumbs and 
forefingers, working at both sides at once. The thumbs are very useful in 
this work. With a little practice one can make an entire shell form with 
the fingers and thumbs alone ; of course, roughly. 

Practice this movement continually. Feel the balance of things. Then 
you will be able to draw balance. Sculptors 

often find the thumbs their best tools. We 

must use the fingers as much as possible, 

but do not expect to make the sharp edges, 

the fine detail expected in woodwork, metal 

work, stone work, and so on, with the 

thumbs alone. The tool must be used for 

this. As a person becomes more skilled he 

will find the fingers more usefifl, and in 

making the human figure sometimes the 

thumbs and parts of the fingers are the main 

tools used. (See Plate Eighteen, page 235.) 

Use the tool to make the ribs on the shell. 

It is very difficult to make these taper. The shell is a wonderful piece of 

architecture. There are no finer lines or curves in nature than may be found 

on a good-shaped shell. Try to make the lines all converge and 

taper gradually. Model on each side. Do not finish one side first and 

then the other. It is much easier to model both sides, to make all the ribs 



Illustration 302 



V 


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4 


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The Curved Leaf 



244 

Illustrations 303-304 



Modelingf 



" »3'V' 




Real Shells for Models 

All Idnds of shells are suitable to be reproduced in clay. They are cheaply pur- 
chased if not otherwise available, and ofFer endless variety in form, proportion, etc. 
The accompanying text describes the shell work illustrated on page 335, not the making 
ot these shells in Illustration 303. 



and serrations first, in the rongh, and then to shape them up and make them 
still finer. The lines of growth as well as the lines of texture show on a real 
shell. If you are copying from a real shell endeavor to get these. 
In some conventional shells and models of shells the lines of growth 
are left out. The suggestion of a spiral in most shell forms where the lines 
meet together is very beautiful. Try to make a true spiral instead of a 
bent line. The last part to model wall be the serrations on the edge of the 
shell. Cut these out with a few simple touches. 

It must be constantly remembered that, at best, word descriptions of 
how to model are inadequate, compared to the actual doing. The reader 
who will trv modeling, who begins with the elementarv work and follows 



Coufse for Grammar Grades 



245 



along into the more difficult forms, will quickly realize the merit of each 
point advanced in these pages. Experience is the best teacher. 

The student will find many suitable forms for modeling suggested in 
the drawings in Book Two, and the carvings in Book Four. Many of the 
plaster casts contain also suitable forms.. After making a few of the simple 
units, designs should be made, consisting of some of the units combined in 
different ways, as illustrated in the picture of tiles on page 231, and on page 
189 in first part of book. 




Gothic Rosettes Models 



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Advanced Clay Modeling 

These hoys are making large original designs and animal forms in clay for architectural purposes. Advanced 
class, R. C. High School. 



CHAPTER VI 

Modeling- 
Animal Forms 



j^NlMAL FORMS. — After tlie children have modeled several com- 
^j^j_ paratively elaborate tiles and can produce simple forms with good 
balance, proportion and fitness, they should be allowed to model 
some of the various animal forms illustrated. Small heads are suitable to 
begin with. Allow them to make their choice of the sheep, dog, tiger, 
horse, lion, or other animal. The teacher will find by experience that pupils 
work with a great deal more energy if they are allowed to work on some 
form that pleases them. The series of head forms illustrated in 306 has been 
made for this express purpose. Some of them are quite difficult and some 
comparatively simple, but if a boy like a horse's head better than a dog's 
head, although it is much harder to model than the dog's head, he will suc- 
ceed better with it. So it is with girls. The girls will sometimes select the 
tiger's head, in preference to the sheep's or the dog's head, although it is 
much more difficult. 

(247) 



248 



Mocieling: 



Do not, however, let them attempt the very complex forms till they 
have made several of these heads. Let each pupil have a separate model, 
and never allow two or three pupils to copy from one model, if they are seated 
at tables. The pupils must be able to handle the form all over, whenever de- 
sired, or to put it in any position desired, to compare it with their own work. 
This cannot be done if two or more are working from the same model. 
Build up the form in the rough first, being sure that the clay is thoroughly 
incorporated, that it is a solid, weh-wedged piece. Do not allow cavities 



Illustration 306 




Casts of Animal Forms 

This set was specially modeled for school purposes, and then duplicated by making plaster casts therefrom. 
There are about twelve heads in the set; some are pictured on page iSi. They form a fine series of models for va- 
rious classes. For further remarks on these and other plaster models of Aarious forms, see pages 1S0-1S4. 



to form in the clay. If there are many air spaces in the lump, it is apt to 
crack in firing, or even in the drying when it is put on the shelf before firing. 
I earnestly desire every one reading this book who wishes to get sug- 
gestions on the work of modeling, to examine carefully the pictures given 
of the class rooms. Notice the variety of models around the walls and on 



Animal Fofms 249 

the shelves. All of these pieces of work, except the very white ones, which 
are plaster casts, have been modeled by the pupils. By studying these 
plates carefully, ideas can be received as to the best way to work. 

Do not allow the pupils to make details in the beginning-. Blocking 
out means to be able to get the large shape roughly first without any detail. 
This is one of the most difficult things for beginners to do. Nearly always 
they will begin to make the features before the size of the head is gained. 
Also try to prevent exaggeration of size. Beginners, especially in making 
heads, will almost invariably enlarge the size. It takes time to overcome 
this disposition. If the illustrations accompanying this chapter are carefully 
studied, you will find by looking at some of the pupils working, that they 
have produced first the general form in the clay, and on this the careful 
working for detail is done. 

Very little can be said in print on this subject. The model is the best 
teacher. Till the form is like the model, the pupil can go on working, 
changing and altering. Allow the pupils to measure if it helps them in 
the beginning. Rough dimensions can be formed by means of the tool. 
Usually the plaster models are much smoother than the forms from v^'hich 
they are produced. The plaster casts have been made by pouring the 
liquid plaster into molds. This, of course, leaves the smooth surface usually 
seen on plaster casts. The pupils very soon notice the texture of different 
substances, the texture of wood when it is carved, the texture of metal, the 
texture of original models in clay. They soon find that it is not always 
necessary to make the smooth surface of the plaster cast. The required 
surface varies with the different forms. There is no one kind of modeled 
surface. On the head forms the tool marks can show, as they do in some 
of the illustrations. It is far better to show the tool marks all over than 
to make the form so smooth that it looks like a piece of jelly or pudding. 
Any good modeler or sculptor will give advice about his work at any time 
to a student who is unable to work in a school. 

For variety, after one or two heads have been made, the pupils can at- 
tempt the Barye casts (page 213). These are used in all my schools. They 
are perhaps the most perfect examples of beautifully modeled animal forms 
that can be procured. There is a great variety, and all of them seem to 
interest the children, many pupils being able to duplicate even the most 
elaborate of them. 



250 



Modeling: 



Illustration 307 




Modeling- from Birds 

The panel below is a model in 
chiy from the real bird shown at 
tlie left. The panel was made by 
;i pupil of the grammar grade, who 
had had more training than the 
pupil that modeled the bird illus. 
trated on page 207, and we there- 
fore have here a better product. 
This panel is about 16 inches long. 
The pupil has had only two hours 
a week in the Public Industrial 
Art School for drawing, modeling 
and carving. It must be con- 
stantly remembered that these 
three branches of work are taken 
in rotation by all pupils. Excel- 
lent as is the training aflbrded by 
modeling in clay, this training is 
still better when combined with 
appropiiate exercises in drawing, 
designing, carving and wood con 
struction. 



The Real Bird 

The Animal Forms* — The ped- 
estal or plinth is usually made first, and 
then a rough form about the size of 
the body is put in the required position 
by a very solid prop under the abdo- 
men. Let this prop be thick and 
substantial. It does not matter if it 
fills the whole space under the body, in 
the beginning. The first day the form 
can only be very roughly built up, mak- 
ing a kind of core. After the second 
day, this clay will be found to be much more solid. It shrinks and 
hardens so that about the second or third day it is quite substantial, 




The Model in Clay 



Animal Forms 25 J 

and clay can readily be modeled onto this core, making the form 
the required size and putting the legs in the required position. Every 
day the clay will shrink. If a model is to be made of the same size 
as the original from which it is copied, it must be started a little larger. 
The shrinkage is about one inch in eight. Remember, the clay shrinks 
while the form is being made till it is quite dry, and then it shrinks again 
when it is fired at the pottery and turned into stone. See Plate Thirteen. 
on page i86. 

Do not let the core dry too much. It must be only a little harder 
than the clay that is added to it. If it is too hard, the clay will shrink un- 
evenly and cracks will result. If the core, or the form in the rough, is 
moistened too much when it is put away, it is apt to fall down. Nothing 
but experience will teach the proper manipulation. Of the two states, it 
is better to keep the clay a little too hard than too soft. As the model 
approaches completion, it should be allowed to become harder, and the 
props or supports under the body can be gradually cut away. It is a little 
difficult to get a large model to shrink evenly all over, but after two or three 
attempts on forms that are not too difficult, like the animals that are sitting 
on their hind quarters, it will be found quite easy to model the more com- 
plex forms that have a number of supports. If the props are cut away too 
soon, and before the clay is stiff enough to support its weight, disaster will 



Illustrations 308-309 




\ 
— i 

Modeled by Grammar Grade Pupils 




result. The remedy, if the forms fall down, is to build them up again with 
new props, being sure that the broken surfaces have been made wet, so that 
they will stick together. This frequently happens even to good workers. 



252 Modeling 

For all of the small forms illustrated in onr ordinary class work, it is bet- 
ter that the pupils should make their models without any interior supports, 
that is, without pieces of wood, or of lead pipe, or of iron and wire. We prefer 
to omit these so that the clay models can be tired at the pottery and the 
child can keep his original work, — his model when fired showing every 
tool mark and being very durable and strong. This is much better than 
to have a cast of the model made, which is done in a great many schools. 
In our art school over 900 pupils model each winter, and it would be 
very expensive to cast all their models. The children get a great deal 
more skill in being able to build up their forms with such solidity. It re- 
quires more skill to keep the clay of a regular consistency, so that it will 
shrink evenly without falling down. Of course, if a plaster cast only is de- 
sired, supports can be used inside, or lead pipe can be bent into the recpiired 
shape. This makes it more easy to model the forms. A plaster cast, how- 
ever, breaks very readily, chips easily, and, if handled very often, looks quite 
dirty in a short time. I recommend for school purposes keeping and firing 
the original models. 

Many choice forms suitable for modeling can be found in the pictures 
of the carving department. All the conventional forms of the dilTerent 
styles make suitable subjects for modeling. 

Before dolphins, griffins, grotesques and other complex forms are 
carved, they should be modeled. 

cModeling Natural Forms* — It is only possible in a book of this char- 
acter to give suggestions for work on a few subjects. As many natural 
forms as possible should be studied. When I speak fully and at length 
about shells or fish, it must not be understood that I mean only those forms. 
Birds, crabs, and animals of various kinds should be studied in the same way. 
My idea is simply to suggest suitable forms and ways. 

Each year we find it feasible to try new subjects before thought not 
attainable in the school rooms. Shells and fish, butterflies and birds, have 
been seldom used by large numbers, as they are now used for some of our 
classes. I find them durable and lasting to a remarkable degree. Stufi^ed 
birds in the studio, that have been roughly handled for 18 years by private 
pupils, are still fit for use. The colors especially seem to be quite permanent. 

The fish forms illustrated in Book Two, beginning on page 143, are all 
used for models in the art schools, with many others. They are mounted on 



Animal Forms 



253 



panels of wood and are very durable. They are used in the modeling room 



as much as in the drawing room. 



Modeling the fish in clay seems to make a very enduring impression 
upon the mind. The children are really fascinated, for the time being, with 

lUustiation 310 




Modeling Fish Foi ms 
Real mounted iish are used as models. Birds, fish, butterflies, shells, etc., are also kept lor general use in the 
drawing, modeling and carving rooms, as well as casts of various art and nature forms. Conventional forms are 
also made, embodying fish forms, such as dolphins, grotesques, etc. 



the strange and sometimes beautiful forms and colors. The mspiration is in 
the natural forms, as it should be, and the mere contemplation of the forms 
seems to influence the pupils to action. It is inspiring to the true teacher to 



254 Modeling: 

realize the moving force and power of nature. Bring something into the 
class room like a new bird form, or fish form, and all of the children follow 
it with their eyes, which seem to almost stick out; there is no lack of atten- 
tion here, the magnetic influence is at work, the divine energy is flowing. 
We should flow with it instead of trying to thwart it, as is too often done. 
This magnetic and energizing power of nature has a splendid influence on 
the physical, mental and moral development of the young. It also fills the 
children with interest, imbues them with vigor, inspires them to think and 
work, while at the same time giving them an appreciation of beauty that 
adds vastly to the ability of the young to enjoy life.* These are certainly 
most desirable attributes to develop in youth, for whatever one's vocation 
may be, the individual should be the better for this training. It is thus dis- 
tinctly practical, and commends itself to the most materially inclined, as 
well as satisfying the more ethical aspirations of our nature. "The emotion 
accompanying every generous act adds an atom to the fabric of the ideal 
man." By working direct from beautiful natural forms we unite the emo- 
tion with the action, and thus still more thoroughly educate. 

The tile is first made, as in Illus. 310, and then the fish is built up piece 
by piece, taking care to keep about the general proportion. Then the tool 
Is used to get the surface and fine curves. When the bulk of the body Is 
about right in proportion, then the spines, fins, eyes, etc., can be added and 
the details made upon them, the scales usually being the last thing repre- 
sented. Fish can be readily cast in plaster, and are very easy forms to begin 



*"Beauty is not a luxury, as some seem to believe. It is not the exclusive privilege of the few but the common 
heritage oi the many. The rich cannot monopolize it, and persons of taste cannot appropriate it to themselves. There 
IS in every human breast a sense of responsiveness to the beauty of the external world, and the difference is only in 
the degree to which that sense is developed and cultivated. It is confined to no class, to no age, to no stage of civiliza- 
tion. It is an universal hunger, and its cravings demand satisfaction as urgently in the cabin as on the throne. 

"And yet this sense of beauty is too often repressed and crushed instead of being nourished and educated as it 
deserves. Much happiness is thus lost out of life, for the sense of beauty, wisely administered to, is a wellspring of 
pleasure. It is even more than this. It is a fountain of life itself. It adds to its fullness and energy, its refinement 
and delicacy, its sweetness and purity. The life from which it is ungraciously pushed out grows inevitably harder 
and rougher, coarser and colder, and its influence over other minds deterioriates in the same way. 

"Ho'w shall this sense of beauty be saved and educated, for rich and poor, for old and young? One way is by 
contact with its presence. Another and still surer means of cultivating the sense of beauty among us is to accustom 
ourselves to create it in daily life. This is a part of education and of self-culture that is sadly neglected. 

"Then there is the beauty of truth and of character. Perhaps we dwell too much upon the dry and stern aspect of 
duty and forget to exhibit or to admire the Ijeauty of goodness. But as fast as duty, instead of a sacrifice, becomes a 
desire, and the love of righteousness becomes the ruling motive, does the character become noble, admirable and 
beautiful. So all beauty is bound together and leads up from the smallest things of life to the greatest; from tli3 
most material to the most spiritual; from the simplest and humblest to the most exalted." — [Anonymous. 



1 



Animal Forms 



255 



upon in doing- plaster casting. The forms are comparatively simple and 
can be removed from the mold without difficulty. 

This work of modeling looks simple, and it is easy when you know how. 
That is to be learned by actually modeling, rather than by reading about it. 
The suggestions given in these pages will help, but you must do the work 
to realize its educational power. The more you model, the more facility 
and accuracy you will obtain, and the more you will be fascinated with this 
mode of thought expression. 




Ijrirtin, Original Design 
Modeled by a R. C. high school boy, for architectural use. 



H 







hJ] « vo 




Oi-iginal Design Modeled in Wax 
The design is afterwards cast in plaster and the wax used again. 



CHAPTER VII 

Wax Modeling- 



CTT' HE DESIGNS SHOWN IN THE PLATE on the opposite page 
g are modeled in wax, and were made by grammar grade pupils. 

They are either their original patterns or heads, antique forms and 
bird forms which they have copied. For convenience, boards 8x14 inches 
are used to model on, as illustrated above. The pupil first makes a drawing 
or sketch in chalk on the board. When this is satisfactory it is then lined in 
with the pencil. 

The wax is much stifi:er than ordinary clay. It is sometimes also quite 
sticky and not so pleasant to use as clay. We use it simply be- 
cause it can be kept an indefinite time, and very fine complex pieces of work 
requiring a long period of time can be kept from month to month on shelves 
without their having to be moistened, as is the case with clay. Unless the 
clay models are wet at frequent intervals they dry up and crack and are of 
course spoiled. With the wax a piece of work can be labored upon for 
months if necessary. Real modeling wax is worth about $1 a pound, the 
best kind. There are several very good substitutes, however, on the mar- 
ket under several names, which are quite as good for general use. Com- 
position clay is used frequently, costing about 30 cents a pound. The 
1- (^57) 



258 



Modeling- 



lustration 313 



same tools are used as in clay modeling, and if the wax is a little sticky it 
is advisable to have a cup of water to moisten the tools and fingers occa- 
sionally. 

Wood of a little roughness in texture is the best to model upon. Wax 
must be rubbed into the surface so that it will stick firmly. On this sur- 
face the form can be built 
up into the desired shape, 
planing off with the tool 
and forming it as described 
in the clay iiiodeling. Wax 
is used for modeling very 
fine forms to he cast in 
metal and other materials. 
Medals and coins are \isu- 
ally modeled in wax. A'^ery 
line and beautiful work can 
be made with small tools. 
A common slate with a 
wooden rim is a useful sur- 
face to model upon. 

It is advisable to allow 
some of the advanced pupils 
in each class at intervals to 
work in wax. For general 
purposes, however, it is not 
so good as clay. Do not 
allow pupils to make very fine work all the time. Let them occasionally 
make a large, bold piece for contrast. Wax can be purchased in a number 
of colors, — bronze-green, brown, red, gray. For general purposes gray is 
best. Bronze-green is very suitable for figure work, having somewhat the 
appearance of a bronze when finished. 

Wax or composition clay is also more portable than common clay and 
has been used with success in several of my summer schools. Models of 
animals, figures, designs, can be boxed and carried with safety when modeled 
in wax, when a clay model would be broken. The clay when dry is very 
brittle, and any sudden jar or shock will break large and heavy work unless 




Original Panel in Wax 

The form is modeled in an upright position by being clamped 
to a board. The same form with different lighting is shown oppo- 
site. By viewingthe model with the light and shade changed it 
can be improved. It is important to get good light and sliade. 



Wax Modelingf 



259 



it is fired. For this reason wax is a good siil3Stitute. When the wax has 
been used many times and becomes discolored or dirty, it may be cleaned 
by melting it. 

The plate or designs made by grammar grade children, page 256, has 
been taken h'om casts made from the wax models and then the wax is used 



Illustration 31+ 




Modeling a Dolphin in Wax 
The form can be rapidly chnaged and improved when viewed in a different light. Use the fingers 
and thumb as a tool, as illustrated in the above picture, as much as possible. Fine cui-ves and swinging 
lines can be made this way. 

over again many times. Simple designs of this character can be readily cast 
by the pupils or teacher in the following manner : 

When the wax pattern is finished, build" a wall of clay around the edge 
of the design about one inch high. This wall, or fence, of clay, must entirely 
inclose the design with desired margin. Next take a tin vessel and put in 
enough water to more than fill the inclosed space. In this water sprinkle 
the dry plaster with a large iron spoon, stirring it slowly until about the con- 
sistency of thin cream. When in this state, pour over the wax model, taking 



260 



Modeling- 



care to see that the Hquicl fills all the pattern and space without any large 
bubbles; this will soon set and harden, and should be about one inch thick. 
The clay rim can then be removed, the plaster tile lifted from the board, and 
it will l)e found to retain the form of the wax model. When the plaster 
mold is hard, the wax can be pulled out, leaving the exact shape of the 
model reversed in the plaster. This is the mold. 

From this mold another cast may be made that will repeat the form of 
the wax model. To do this, a clay wall must be built around the mold, 
and the surface and all parts of the impression upon it must be brushed with 
sweet oil; this prevents the new plaster, when poured in, from sticking to 
the mold. The liquid plaster can now he poured in. When it is hard the 
cast can be separated from the mold l)y tapping it gently or inserting a 
blunt knife as a lever. If successfully done, the cast should be a complete 
copy of the wax model. 

Of course this can only he done with flat forms that do not project on 
the edges to prevent the mokl and 
cast from separating. If any edge is 
undercut, it must be filled with wax, 
to insure good results. This is a good 
way to make some of the class work 
permanent and also interests the chil- 
dren. Sometimes the mold is slight- 
ly colored l)y mixing red clay or 
Oiher coloring matter with the plaster 
before it sets. 



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Enlarging- Animal Forms 
These low relief forms are modeled in wax from small casts. 



BOOK FOUR 

Wood Carving 




" The hand, destined to become Ihe instru- 
ment for perfecting- the other senses, and for 
developing- the endowments of the mind itseli', 
is, in the infant, absoluteh' powerless." — ["The 
Hand," Sir Charles Bell, K. G. II., F. R. S. 



"Awkwardness of limb and inabilit-v to use 
the fingers deftly, continually entail small dis- 
asters and occasionally great ones; while ex- 
pertness frequently comes in aid of -welfare, 
either of self or others. One who has been well 
practiced in the use of his senses and his mus- 
cles, is less likely than the impracticed to meet 
\vith accidents; and when accidents occur, is 
sure to be more efficient in rectifying mischiefs. 
Were it not that the obvious trutli is ignored, 
it would be absurd to point out that, since 
linibs and senses exist to the end of adjusting 
the actions to surrounding objects and move- 
ments, it is the business of everyone to gain 
skill in the performance of such actions." — 
[Spencer, Principles of Ethics, page 515, 



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Designed and Carved by High School Pupil 



CHAPTER I 

Tools for "Wood Carving 
Design in Wood * 



T T700D CARVING is one of the most beautiful of arts. It requires 
f/t^ a real knowledge of form, therefore its educational value 
lies in enabling pupils to receive fixed or permanent impres- 
sions. Just as pupils acquire dexterity and skill in drawing on blackboard 
or paper, and just as they gain similar dexterity and skill in soft clay, so T 
wish them also to obtain dexterity in tough wood. 

The tools required in carving are very simple. A few gouges and 
chisels and a mallet, with clamps to hold the work on the table or bench, 
will be enough. In wood carving, as in carving in marble or other slone, 
few tools are needed; the fewer the tools used, the better the workman. A 



*The carvin; 



.s and similar work illustrated in this chapter are all done by the children of the various grades. 

(263) 



264 



Wood Carving; 



mallet and a few chisels are the only tools used in sculptured work, and as far 
back as we can trace in history the tools appear to have been similar in shape. 
On the back of the Venus of Milo rough tool marks may be seen that in- 
dicate to us the kind of edge and size of chisel used in that period of the 
greatest Greek art. 

The Tools* — In carving, the simpler the chisels and the fewer in num- 
ber that are used the better the 
Illustration 316 , r- 1 

result. Some carvers have 

rows of 50, 60 or 70 different 
chisels, but these are usually 
not very good carvers. Again 
some of the finest carvers will 
do all their work in wood, 
even the most intricate and 
most elaborate sculpture work, 
with perhaps no more than 
half a dozen. My sets for or- 
dinary school purposes usu- 
ually consist of about 10 tools. 
It is far better to become thor- 
oughly familiar with all the 
capacities of a few tools than to handle a great variety. 

Age at Which to Learn* — As soon as children are big enough 
to swing their elbows freely above the table or bench, they are ready for 
carving. Carving is work; not hard work, but work that compels the ex- 
ercise of a certain amount of energy. Some women are deterred from 
carving because they think it is hard, and requires the exercise of main 
strength continually. This is not so. Like marble carving, wood carving 
is re-enforced by the use of the mallet. If the chisel or gouge cannot be 
readily pushed through the wood, the mallet is used, and any one who has 
strength enough to drive a tack can cut the hardest wood. Children of 
eight or nine, therefore, unlesstheyareconstitutionally defective or very weak, 
are quite large enough and strong enough to carve, and usually enter into it 
with a great deal of energy and joy. It is fun to them to see the chips fly, 
and they find it especially attractive when they discover that from the be- 
o-innine thev can make fit and beautiful forms, — rather than the amateurish 




Clamps and Mallet for Wood Carvinu 



Tools for Wood Carvingf 



265 



things used in some schools, where the children spend their energies on 
feeble imitative constructions in wood. 

Just as our children from the beginning are fit to draw forms of the 
best style, embodying beauty and grace; and just as in modeling they can 
make fine forms of the best periods, so in wood we find it to be of ad- 
vantage that they should from the beginning do the best class of work pos- 
sible, and become familiar with the forms best suited for this material. It 
does not follow that because a mind is young, it is less bright and clear in 
perceiving beautiful and true things. It is just as wrong to give children 
feeble, aimless forms to model and carve because they are young, as it is to 
utter baby talk to them when we wish them to speak clearly and to enunciate 
properly. 

The Wood to Use* — Do not let the pupils use soft wood at first, — 
such as pine or poplar. This advice, it is true, is opposed to the 

Illustration 317 




Set of Carving Tools 

Including small sharpening- stone. "With this simple and inexpensive 
set of tools all ordinary carving can l^e done. 



usual practice in schools. Usually the pupils are allowed to chip blocks of 
soft pine or poplar. This is a mistake. From the very beginning our pupils, 
as can be seen by the illustrations, make in hard wood panels fit to be 
utilized. My reason for using hard wood is that the children from the first 



266 Wood Carvingf 

may get accustomed to the texture in ordinary use; most carving being 
done in oak and mahogany, cherry and wahiut, while only occasionally are 
soft woods employed. The best and the cheapest wood for school pur- 
poses is oak. It is a little tough in texture, and offers just enough re- 
sistance to prevent it splintering and cutting too freely. If you give a be- 
ginner a piece of very soft wood, it splinters so readily that when attacked 
without skill, the forms are soon spoiled. With a piece of hard wood, on the 
contrary, a great deal of cutting can be done without splintering the work. 
Of course it requires more labor, but the product is better, — and there is 
not so much disappointment. The grain being of firm consistency, it does 
not give way in unexpected places, as it so often does in the soft wood. 

Designing the Form to Carve* — The pupils should from the stan 
make a design that will be of use and \'alue. The first panel can embody 
the forms that have been given in the modeling. It is not necessary to 
carve a series of panels, each of which has a separate unit on it. The 
units may be combined from the beginning, and a panel that will have some 
value and that can be used for some purpose is the result. In every article 
printed about carving heretofore, pupils are recommended to practice cut- 
ting on soft blocks of wood first, apparently just to get exercise. They are 
advised to use tracing paper to transfer drawings to the wood; sometimes 
carbon paper is recommended; at other times tracing cloth, or they are 
taught to use a pattern wheel, — this is a wheel with little spurs on it that 
prick the outlines through the pattern into the wood. Some even advise 
the making of stencils, the forms being cut out in stiff paper in order that 
the pupil may draw around the edges, and so produce the designs. These 
are very erroneous bits of advice, and such methods must be avoided 
by the carver who does not wish to be a feeble amateur. 

Let the pupil take a piece of chalk and draw freehand a simple pattern, 
— say the scroll doubled. Reserve a simple band around the edge of the 
panel about half or three-quarters of an inch in width. Practice making 
this drawing till the scrolls balance and fit the space. It is a little difficult 
to draw freely on rough wood, but with practice it can be done readily. Add 
a few crockets if desired, each added form making the carving a little more 
complex. As soon as the form is satisfactorily placed, then with a soft 
lead pencil — one with a thick lead preferred — make the outline permanent, 
drawing the line heavily, so that it will not rub off. Any good teacher will 



Tools for Wood Cai-ving: 



267 



see the absurdity of advising children to trace or to paste on the wood or to 
produce by artificial means a pattern that ought to be produced automat- 
ically by the hand of the pupil. It is because from the very beginning we 
compel our pupils, on all various surfaces and in the different mediums, 



Illustration 318 




Positions of Hands in Carving 
This picture represents four hands gripping tools in various positions. In cutting from right to left 
the left hand will usually be guiding the tool and also resting on the work to prev(jnt the tool from 
going too far. 



to make the work freehand, that we get the results we do — uniting hand 
dexterity with originality of product. I have in one school alone 900 
pupils carving, and have never had two patterns made exactly alike since the 
school started. This drawing on the wood, in the beginning with the 



268 



Wood Carvmgf 



Illustration 319 














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chalk and then with the lead pencil, gives very good practice. It requires 
only a few minutes to do it, and makes the children feel in the beginning 
that the work is their own. It is very wrong to allow pupils to cheat; and 
it is really a sort of deception when they are allowed to claim as their own 
work that which has been copied or traced. 

The background can now be scored with the pencil all over. (Illus. 319.) 
This prevents the pupil from cutting out the ornament instead of the back- 
ground, — a mistake w h i c h 
will frequently occur unless 
proper precaution is taken. It 
is only by repeated experience 
that pupils begin to grasp the 
idea of form on (lat surface. 
Very few can see a back- 
ground all over and distin- 
guish it readily from a pattern 
on the background, unless 
they have had practice in 
making these forms. Even 
adults will frequently cut out 
part of a pattern by mis- 
take, and do this several times before they get accustomed to distinguish the 
difference. It saves trouble, therefore, to score the background in every 
case with beginners. Then very little work is spoiled. 

As to Graded Work* — Illustrations are given herewith of graded 
panels showing the different elements of design separately cut and ex- 
hibiting the different stages. These are made simply to illustrate the steps 
in carving, — a first, a second, and a third stage. They must be carefully 
studied in advance, and then it will be easier to make the first attempt. In 
our schools the children see all these operations going on at once, on the 
different panels. They soon take in the idea, and we find in consequence 
that it is not essential for each one to make the different units separately, 
but they can begin on panels. 

A number of pictures of panels with graded exercises have also been 
prepared for those who like to " systematize things." These forms, how- 
ever, are mainly useful for pupils who have never had any practice in draw- 






Backg-round Marked Over for Cutting Out 



Tools for "Wood Carving: 269 

ing and modeling. All the pupils in my schools receive the drawing and the 
modeling from the beginning, in rotation with wood carving, this rendering 
it imnecessary for them to make the elementary forms. Usually a pupil who 
can draw a good scroll, and who has modeled the same, can begin to produce 
it with the chisel in the first lesson. 



Illustration 320 

. V 



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A Pictuix- Frame Designed and Carved by Grammar Grade Pupil 




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1 



Carvud by Graiuiiuir Grade Fupils 

CHAPTER II 

Instructions for 
Elementary Carving 




OW TO CARVE. — Take a gouge, and without removing the lead- 
pencil marks from the panel, gouge a channel around the design. 
Grasp the tool firmly in both hands. ■ There is no one position for 
holding the chisel (see Illus. Nos 322 to 326), but in doing this work, the 
chisel should change from one hand to the other, as we work from right to 
left or the reverse, sometimes one hand guiding the chisel and sometimes 
the other, but most of the time both hands grasping it tightly and helping 
to guide it. 

Cutting tough oak is splendid discipline. Unless the tool is held 
firmly, it is likely to slip and cut the wrong place. The w^ood being easy 
to cut with the grain and hard to cut against the grain, it is difhcult at 
first to make the chisel sweep around a curve, because some part of it will 
be hard and resist, while the parts of it that go with the grain will be soft. 
A very few attempts will enable a pupil to find out this characteristic. It 
is one of the things that we can properly learn only by experience. All the 
speech in the world and all the talk of a dozen teachers will not enable one 
to feel these things. If the tool is not very sharp, or if the wood is a little 
too hard to be cut with a simple pressure of the hands, one hand can hold 
the chisel and the other drive it, like a mallet, or the mallet even may be 

used. 

(371) 



272 



Wood Carving 



It is better, however, In the beginning, to practice as much as possible 
by pushing the chisel through the wood, so that both hands can get the 
power to grip the tool tightly, and at the same time to guide it. Do not be 
too anxious to remove the wood quickl3^ Endeavor to make free curves 
from the beginning. It is perhaps better to make slight grooves at first 



Illustration 322 





Wood Carving- 

This picture shows method of clamping work to the bench, position of tools and method of grasping tools 
with both hands. Various pieces of work carved by the boys are in the background. 



and then gradually increase them in depth as one's power increases. It 
will be found very soon that while one hand guides the tool the other will 
hold it back as much as possible. These movements must be practiced 
continually till the wood is entirely removed around the whole pattern. 
The gouge can then be used to remove roughly the rest of the background, 



Instructions for Elementary Carvingf 273 

working the chisel as freely as possible and taking care not to cut too deeply 
into the wood. About one-quarter or three-eighths of an inch is quite 
enough. Do not attempt to smooth up the background in the beginning. 

Other tools can now be taken and the forms can be cut sharp and clean 
around the edge. This is done by taking a curve that will fit the edge, and 
cutting it down vertically with a few taps of the mallet. Endeavor to make 
a continuous clean cut with the tool, fitting successive tools to the altering 
curve of the outline. Do not let it show irregular marks. Do not try to 
make a wide curve with a narrow-curved tool. From four to six curves 
will fit almost any part of a scroll. Where the curve is acute, a chisel of 
quite an acute curve must be used; where the curve is almost flat, a flatly 
curved tool is required. 

In using the mallet, the pupil from the beginning must get accustomed 
to holding it in both right and left hand. Do not let the pupils become 
right-handed, that is, so that they can use the mallet with one hand only. 
A good carver should be able to work both ways, changing the mallet from 
hand to hand just as the tool is changed from hand to hand, according to 
direction. Sometimes the entire background can be cut out this way, 
using the tool and mallet. It is a matter of choice to the individual. An 
expert carver will not consider the line or the drawing, but from the begin- 
ning will sweep out with a large, deep gouge as much of the background 
as possible, afterward shaping the different parts of the design. As soon 
as the whole design stands up clean and well drawn, and as soon as all the 
background has been removed from every part, the pupil must begin to 
model the raised part. 

Carving the Raised Surface* — This is the most difficult part of the 
carving, and to be done skillfully requires that the pupils should feel form 
in the wood with the chisel, just as we feel it in the clay. Select the gouge 
according to the curve required on the scroll. Next carefully draw a line 
on the design representing the modeled edge, or the edge that stands up. 
Then take the gouge and scoop out the inside curve around each scroll to 
this line. Do a little at a time, gradually letting the chip grow smaller as 
we come to the end of the sweep. Usually we carve this out about half 
the depth of the wood, just as we have in the past modeled the form. Prac- 
tice swinging the chisel in both bands around the curve, making clean, 
sharp cuts, the pressure being put on the chisel with one hand, while being 



274 



Wood Carving- 



guided and held by the other. Most of the time in doing this work one 
wrist will rest tirnily on the work. This support gives a kind of center and 
leverage that enables one to cut around the curves without much difficulty, 

Illustration 323 




Wood Carving 

Two other positions of holding tools. Variety of carved panels in the background. These boys are carv- 
ing' portions of a very handsome piece of furniture. 



each hand helping, one holding back and the other pushing. Curve out 
as carefully as possible the inside of each scroll. 

Then take a chisel that is almost flat and bevel ofi^ the outer edge. This 
is a little more difficult and great care must be taken not to chip or break the 
modeled edge. The inside curve of each crocket must be scooped out and 
the outer edge beveled with a nearly flat chisel. Take care of the tips of 
the crockets. Do not under-cut them so that they chip off. It will not 
matter if some of the crockets are broken in the bes'inning. They can be 



Instructions for Elementary Carving 275 

made smaller, and, if they break again, cut still smaller, or if necessary the 
design can be rendered without them. Because one crocket is spoiled, do 
not cut off all the other crockets. Practice on those also. It is very fool- 
ish to see some pupils, because they have spoiled or cut off by mistake one 
crocket, cut off all the others. Practice making each crocket, trying to 
keep it sharp and to get the curved edge and the bevel edge with facility. 

PoHVer in the Hand* — Two or three panels must be carved before 
one becomes familiar with the grain of the wood. In cutting around a single 
scroll, the direction of the chisel must usually be changed four times on 
account of the grain. This seems a little troublesome at the 
start and puzzles a beginner, but by the time we have cut half a dozen 
scrolls, the work begins to grow automatic. We no longer have to think 
about it, and attention can be confined to the shape which we are carving, 
the hands almost unconsciously having become aware of the texture of the 
wood in the dift'erent positions. This is the power that we wish to get, and 
pupils must be made to struggle with the wood till they reach this stage. It 
is an uncomfortable experience to pass through, and the first scroll may 
take perhaps one, two, or three hours to cut, when later, after facility is 
gained, it can be done in perhaps fifteen minutes. 

Encourdge the PupiL — Remember, the wood is tough and unyield- 
ing. The pupils must be encouraged They must be told what to expect. 
Unless a pupil can see an expert cut the wood, the experience they receive in 
the beginning of lack of power is very depressing. But the wood will answer 
to every touch like plastic wax when once the capacity to carve is acquired. 
Therefore, again I say, encourage the pupils at this stage. Because oc- 
casionally a panel is spoiled, that is no reason why a pupil should be spoiled. 
The first stages of a carved panel are also very depressing to look at. It 
is the last few touches, the smoothing touches and the stamping of the 
background that make the essential difference. Scores of times in my ex- 
perience I have found that the pupils, who are most stupid in the be- 
ginning, the ones who make the most awkward attempts, who seem to be 
all thumbs and despair, are the ones who develop into skilled workers. 

Do not, then, because the wood is hard and brittle and notched, and be- 
cause struggling and strength and reliance are required, let the pupils fail 
to use these qualities. I consider that our children have learned a most 
valuable lesson when thev become able to make a piece of tough wood 



276 



Wood Carvingf 



assume the desired beautiful shape. In reaching this stage they have had to 
exercise their patience, they have had to struggle with both hands and 
arms; they have had to compel their hands to obey their minds; and to do 



Illustration 




Wood C;irviny; — Position in Malleting 
Work of pujiils should bu disphiyed around the chiss rooms, as illustrated. 



this, thev have had to bring into application a knowledge of form and a 
care and precision that make them embody these qualities. They must not 
do all this once or a few times only, but they must form the habit till it 
becomes automatic. 

The Vdlue of Cdft>ing* — I regard carving as one of the best means, 
with modeling, to impress ]3ermanently and quickly fundamental forms, 
fixed concepts of form, in the minds of the children. It is comparatively 
easy to swing forms of grace and beauty on a blackboard or on a piece of 
paper. There is very little resistance offered to the hand. But is is a 



Instructions for Elementary Carving; 



277 



different matter to swing these tilings in a tough piece of wood. I want 
the pupils to be able to look at a flat panel or a rough block of wood and to 
see its possibilities and potentialities. I want them to be able mentally to 
see the design in the wood, and with the fewest touches to form this pat- 
tern, not by picking it out, as too many often model and carve, bit by bit 
and chip by chip, but by freely drawing with the tools in the wood. This 
capacity can be acquired, and all good carvers have it, their work looking 
very different from that of amateurs. 

Use of Finished Work* — It is important for children to see fin- 
ished pieces of work. In all my class rooms, even in the night schools, we 

Illustration 325 ' 




Wood Carving 
Position when using the hand as a mallet. The hands should swing as freely as possible over the carving 



put all the finished work around the rooms a certain length of time, as may 
be observed in the illustrations. The pupils thus get ideas. They can see 
the application of the work, and can follow it in its different stages. 



278 Wood Carving 

Another plan that I have pursued, Is always to allow the children to 
own their work. It must not be kept by the school altogether, to be used 
for exhibition purposes, but should always belong to the child. I In- 
variably let them take their pieces home for parents and friends to see; then 
if necessary they can be brought back and hung up a certain length of time, 
usually till after the spring exhibition, when all work is carried home by the 
pupils. Those who are the most discouraged in carving, who find that it 
Is almost impossi1)le to work out the backgrounds and to struggle with the 
tough wood in the hard places and In the corners, where it is so difficult to 
remove, are the very ones who need the work the most. 

For educational purposes, experience has taught me that a certain 
proportion of children will dislike drawing on a surface, a certain proportion 
will dislike clay work, and a certain proportion will dislike carving In wood. 
Frequently these are the very pupils who do exceptionally well In the other 
departments. Do not let them for this reason work only In those depart- 
ments. It is in cases like this that we need the value of the work as dis- 
cipline. I have never known a pupil, l^ecause he liked modeling and dis- 
liked carving, to stop work altogether Ijecause he was made to carve. He 
does the carving because it Is part of the course, and the modeling because he 
likes it, or the reverse. After a while all the pupils are intelligent enough to 
realize the value of each department as training, and are willing to pursue it 
Irrespective of their likes and dislikes. 

As d irdining* — The bitter must be taken with the sweet. Never 
allow pupils to elect the branch in which they should work, unless In case 
of constitutional defect, when exceptions can be made; for Instance, when 
the pupil is a cripple or is physically weak. There is a great dispo.sitIon 
among parents, and even among teachers, to let children " do as they will, 
rather than to make them do as they ought. Moral habits must be formed 
In children long before you can teach moral principles. In the end the 
teacher is always justified in the mind of the child when he comes to re- 
alize the value of the habit, and later of the principle."* Carving compels 
attention mentally and visually, in combination with a certain amount of 



'Dr. Phillip S. Moxom. 



Instfuctions for Elementary Carving- 



279 



muscular energy that must be exerted, a certain amount of disposition to 
tug and pull the tough, resisting wood into shape. 

Persistent activity that requires the use of a close grip with both hands, 
and that requires all the muscles of the arm and the thorax to be actively 



Illustration 326 




One Position of Hand in Gouging 
Usually the tools are kept turned in one direction on the bencli, with sharpening stone and mallet near to hand. 



engaged, is good for the growing children. They are compelled to exert 
themselves in the very parts of their being that are but little used and are 
allowed to be torpid most of the time in schools. The chest muscles, the 



280 Wood Carving: 

breathing muscles, the muscles of the arm and the upper part of the body, 
are all actively exercised in carving. This is doubly valuable to children, 
because their school work gives them a disposition to lack energy, making 
them torpid in a measure. I have seen children who are actually too tired 
through the training they have had, to be willing to grip the handle 
tight for a continuous period. This is a very bad condition for the pupil to 
be in, and carving in nearly every case removes it. If a carver has any 
capacity at all, it will be generally found that he has splendid grip, caused 
by clutching handles for a certain purpose. We want this capacity in our 
children, and I believe there is a very firm connection between mental grip 
and physical grip. 

Carving also is unlike sawing and planing, and a good many other 
operations that merely require the use of strength without much mental 
effort, since every touch of the chisel in carving must be guided by in- 
telligence. There is no mechanical work about it. The pupil cannot use 
instruments of precision or other mechanical aid. There is no method by 
which original carving can be done without the use of the mind.* To 
prevent cutting too far he must exercise continuously the eye, the hand, and 
the intelligence, and the hands must continually follow certains forms or lines 
and those only. That is the reason carving, in combination with drawing 
and modeling, takes a so much higher rank than all the mechanical methods 
or the mere teaching of a trade, or those amateur systems of knife-work, 
where a few feeble constructions are made that have been thought out by 
the teacher, — repetitions of other people's ideas, and where amateur tools 
are used. 

Finishing the Cdrving* — When the carving has been modeled so far 
as the pupil can do it, the background can be finished by stamping or left 
exposed, showing the chisel marks. The former is done by going all over 
the surface with the point of a stamp, of course using the mallet to apply 
force. A stamp may be made of a big nail filed on the end to the desired 
shape. Rough or fine backgrounds can be made as desired. This throws 
out the design and makes the background even. 

Carving and modeling are much superior means of compelling obser- 



* Machines are now construrted that can copy carving very exactly. But the original piece must first be carved 
or modeled by the hand and mind. 



Instructions for Elementary Carving; 281 

vation than simple drawing; on account of the forms having been made, 
they become fixed in the mind permanently, when in drawing or in looking, 
alone, this is not always the case. After modeling or carving, usually the 
first time, all the pupils remark the fact that they notice shapes that they 
have never seen before on the most familiar objects — fences, gratings, build- 
ings, and so on. 

It is a fact that not one person in a hundred knows the shape of some 
of the most familiar forms till they have actually made them. By know- 
ing, I mean, to be able to reconstruct in any way the actual form. They 
usually have only a partial concept, and the universal peculiarity that is re- 
marked among modelers and carvers is the new way they have come to look 
at things. They perceive things that they had never noticed before in 
their environment, and they cannot help but speak of them continually. 
This is simply nothing more or less than that they are beginning to ob- 
serve to some purpose for the first time in their lives, and are also beginning 
to put their powders of observation into practice. They assimilate the dif- 
ferences and resemblances of things that they see and embody them in a 
work of their own hands and minds. In other words, " they have added 
another weapon to their arsenal of power." 



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Carved by High School Boy 



CHAPTER m 

Carvingf the 
Elementary Units of 
Design 



/N THIS CHAPTER are given instructions in carving some of the units 
of design and simple forms used for elementary work in drawing and 

modeling. In most of my carving classes all the pupils are engaged In 
making these forms in combination, in designs on panels, etc., to be used 
for various purposes. For convenience in describing methods, however, 
the units have been carved to show three stages or steps in the work — (i) the 
form grooved out, (2) the form nearly finished, (3) quite finished. If these 
cuts are studied attentively, the work of carving can be readily performed. 

The Scroll* — The form Is first carefully drawn In chalk until It fits the 
desired space, then In soft lead pencil to make it show plainly. Then a line 
is gouged around the form as shown in Illus. 329, being careful not to cut the 
pattern and to get clean, clear curves. Then the background is partly 
gouged out. The second step is to cut dowai aro'und the form to the re- 
quired depth and then to smooth the background. The raised part can then 

(283) 



284 



Wood Carving; 



be modeled, with a curved surface on the inside of the scroll and a slope on 
the outside, being careful not to cut more than half-way down to the 
background. 

One can readily see what valuable training is given to the hand and the 

Illustration 329 




Carving- the Scroll 

The first part shows the beginning- of the work, the form being- grooved out; the 
second partly completed; the third is the finished carving- of this simple scroll. 



eye, when the pupils can swing these curves freehand in the tough, unyield- 
ing wood. What a valuable training it is, in enabling the hand to swing 
accurate and true forms on paper or surface of any kind. 

Illustration 330 



r 





Carvinor the I^eaf— Three Stages 



The Simple Leaf* — The leaf in this example (Illus. 330) is made 
about the same in proportion as the leaf used in drill work and for modeling. 
When the leaf has been carved the form is more vividlv remembered and the 



Elemcatary Units of Design 285 

magnitude grasped better than through merely drawing and modeling it. 
To know this simple form accurately is a help in making all other forms. 

The form is first drawn in chalk; when the proportions suit, with soft 
lead pencil. Then gouge the outline and remove background, as illustrated 
in the first stage. Now sink the background and partly form the surface of 
the leaf. Third, finish curves and ribs. Every touch with tool will help the 
student to embody the shape and draw it better. 

The Spiral l^iyith Crockets* — This form(Illus. 331) is more elaborate 
and is made in the same way as the spiral. The crockets make it harder to 
carve, because they interrupt the curves, but with a little practice the forms 
can be made to flow out with fine tangential curvature. It is dif^cult, at 
first, to make the corners free and clean; they will chip ofT, but a little care 
will prevent it. The raised edge, or modeled line, is hard to make fine and 

Illustration 331 



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L 



Carving Spiral Crockels — The Three Steps 



clean the first few times; it is difficult to prevent it being angular. — gradual 
transition from curve to curve is necessary. Right here the pupil receives 
experience in persistence, application, patience, combined with co-operation 
of hand, eye and mind. All this has an important influence in forming 
habits of industry and a love for w^ork, as well as its influence manually and 
mentally. 

^he cAnthemion* (Illus. 332.) — Let this be draw^n in chalk, then 
in pencil. Then (i) remove background, (2) next deepen the background 
and partly model the various lobes, and (3) then finish the panel. To keep 
the long narrow parts of the lobes clean and slender is hard, but with practice 



286 Wood Catvingf 

all the forms can be nicely modeled with the tools. Use a nearly flat curve 
for this finishing work, and "feel" the curves with the hand continually. The 
tool should cut convex curves all over the lobes. 

All the various units of form should be carved repeatedly in various 
designs suitable for use as panels or enrichments for furniture, etc. All the 
models in the various parts of this work are suitable for carving. 

'J^settes are forms frecjuently required in carving, and to cut some of 
them in wood gives a wonderful accuracy and fitness. The calipers are 
used to strike the circle (Illus. ;^^^), and the little boss in the center of the 
circle. The wood can. then be scooped out with the gouge. On this 
curved surface the leaflets can then be drawn. With a curved chisel cut 
down the edges, and with a parting tool make the ril3S down the center of 
each leaflet. Remember, the tips stand up and the background curves in 
quite deep, the entire rosette being below the surface of the piece of wood. 
The stages can be seen at 333, first a part lead-penciled, then the midrib 
partly cut, and the leaflets at the back. These forms are simply intended 
for suggestions, and the actual forms should be studied from examples that 
can readily be seen in many places. A second form is suggested at c in Thus. 
333, partly finished and then completely finished. Pursue the same plan in 
making this form and its variations. 

Square 'l^settes can also be made (Illus. 334). Mark out the form 
with ruler, put on the diagonals of the square, make the little circle to rep- 
resent the boss in the middle of the rosette, and draw the inner square. 
Next cut around the edge of thedeaves with the chisel and sink the middle 
part of the leaf, then trim out with a nearly flat chisel the points between 
the leaves; next, sink the background still deeper, and put the finishing 
touches on with the gouge, as illustrated. In all this work requiring the 
repetition of similar forms, we allow the use of the ruler and the compass, 
simply to save time. The actual form is cut with the hand many times, even 
when the lead-pencil marks have been cut away, so that it is freehand carv- 
ing, and it is simply for convenience that we space off with the calipers. 
Of course the spacing also might be done with the aid of the eye alone, but 
it would never look quite as well. It is only in patterns of this kind, like 
frets, rosettes and moldings, where there is constant repetition, that we ever 
use the ruler or the compass. In all other work and designs of different 
kinds, the eye alone Is used. 



Elementary Units of Design 



2S7 



niustration 332 




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hustration 333 



Carving- the Anthemion 



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Carvino' Round Rosettes 



Illustration 334 




Carving Square Rosettes 



288 



Wood Carving- 



The next rosette form in the square is a httle more difficult, b. (Ilkis 
334.) Place diagonals of the square, as before, make the center boss and 
then mark out the darts and the scalloped leaf behind the darts. Then with 
a chisel cut down the outline of the form and remove the background. In 
making the center of the darts, cut the middle line first quite deep, and then 
slope down to it with a nearly flat chisel. The curved edges of the form 

lllustralion 335 -. h et, 



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CarviniT Fluted Foin.s 



can then be made and the ribs gouged out. Pupils should be encouraged 
to make varieties of these rosette forms. 

The next rosette is still more complex, and represents a conventional 
leaf running out to the four corners, c, Illus. 334. Draw the form with a 
soft pencil first, then cut down with a partly curved chisel, remove the back- 
ground, pfouee out the sides of the leaves, as shown in illustration, and 
round over with a nearly flat tool. The balls can next be modeled and the 
veins on the leaves gouged out. The background is then finished by 
stamping. 

Fluted Forms are also used for a variety of purposes in carving. 
(See Illus. 335.) Mark out the surface to be filled, then the center, then with 
a parting tool make a set of lines ray out from the center, and curve over 
with the chisel, lastly making the curved surface at the end of each ray, as in a. 

The fluted form in a circle {b) is more difficult. It is sunk in the wood 
below the surface, and a concave form must first be made, leaving the center 
boss standing up Then make the rays around the circle with the parting tool 
and curve over. Lastly finish the edges with sharp, clean cuts. The next 
is a still harder renderinp- of the same form and the ellipse, with the fluting 



Elementary Units o£ Design 



289 



making a double curve, as at c, Illus. 335. The general form must first be hol- 
lowed in the surface, then the form may be drawn with the pencil and made 
as before. It is excellent discipline to make each one of these curve and 
diminish gradually. An exceeding amount of patience is required, which is 
valuable discipline for any one. A steady hand and a true eye are de- 
manded, and if these are properly employed there is a sure return, and a 
product that is valuable, useful, and beautiful. 

Conventionalized Forms for Carving* — The next illustration con- 
sists of conventioalized shell forms, 33.6. These are made the same way 
as the forms just described. The shape is to be drawn with the pencil, the 
surface sunk to the desired depth, and then the flutings or lobes are to be 
carved. Shell forms are among the most beautiful forms that can be made 
in wood. They seem especially appropriate, and endless is the variety of 
beautiful results that can be obtained by simply changing the depth and the 



Illustration 336 



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Ca.r viii ys ot Conventionalized Shell Forms 



relief of the carving. Sometimes they look very beautiful when scooped in 
quite deeply, at other times when the\' are raised up in high relief. 

After a few simple forms have been made, like those illustrated, many 
others are sure to be observed, and fine carved work of different kinds, and 
the pupil will soon have a desire to make them, and the carving of simple 
forms will readily enable one to grasp the more complex forms when they 
are seen. Carving, actually making' these shapes in the tough wood, is 
the best means that I know of for making permanent records of form. This 



19 



290 



"Wood Catvingf 



is the reason that carving is one of the essential branches in this method of 
training. Many elaborate pieces of carved furniture have been made by the 
members of the teachers' classes at the art school. They work very faith- 
fully and it is valuable as an offset to their sedentary work at the schools. 



Carved bv Teacher of the Public Schools 





iiii 




Carving- on a Curved Surface 
This piece of work, a heavy frame, is clamped in the bench and shows uosition of hands in carving- on the 
curved surface. Tlie carving- is to extend all around the frame. 



CHAPTER IV 

Carving- on Furniture and 
Other Advanced Work 



/0^\RVING IN RELIEF ON CURVED SURFACES.— -Pupils must 
ly get skill in carving in relief and on curved surfaces, as well as in 
flat carving. They should make several panels in the fiat, how- 
ever, before attempting work in relief. The borders illustrated 
herewith (339 to 344 are simple and can be used for a variety of 

(291) 



292 Wood Carving; 

purposes in the enrichment of furniture, as can be seen by the various 
illustrations. In making the first strip, which consists of a series of beads 
of difTerent proportions (Tllus. 339), it is necessary to use the calipers, — a 
pair with a screw preferred. The calipers must be sharply pointed, and 
by fixing it to the size rec|uired, being careful to screw it tightly, the length 

Illustration 339 




iBMaai»ag» ag,a»Mi;... 



Beaded Surface Border 



Illustration 340 




Tongue and Part Molding 

of each bead can be accurately marked with the point. As soon as this 
is done, take a flat chisel and make a slight indentation between each two 
beads. Enlarge this till it is of the size illustrated, and then with several fiat 
tools, of small size, model each ball or curve. It is quite hard to make them 
even and equal. If one is cut too small, by accident, do not make the rest 
so. Go on with the work, making them the proper sizes. 

A spoiled one can be cut off and a piece of wood glued on again to be 
carved. Almost all forms carved in wood can be repaired in this way. It is 
almost impossible for skilled carversnot to break off occasional pieces. These 
can be glued on again, or, if lost, another piece of wood can be glued on and 
then cut to the desired shape. It is very stupid to see a pupil cut off all the 
elevations or points or crockets, as the case may be, simply because one or 
two are broken or spoiled in cutting. 



Futniiute and Other Advanced Work 293 

The c/^xt ^kce of Molding is the tongue and dart, or egg-dart 
molding, (Illiis. 340.) It is seen frequently in wood and stone, and 
is considered to be one of the best of all moldings. All of these pieces of 
wood have been shaped by machiner}^ first, and can be purchased, with the 
desired curve, at almost any mill. It is not necessary for the student to do 
this preliminary work; it would simply be a waste of time. This design is 
also to be marked out with the calipers in the beginning, being sure to get 
the ovals or tongues equal in size, and to make them of such size that the re- 
quired number will fill the space. This must be done by marking or 
measuring off the entire surface first. As soon as it is spaced out with the 
calipers, take a soft pencil and draw the outline of the raised edges. Next 
take a parting tool and form the outline of the tongue and the darts. (See 
cut.) The next step is to deepen this, as illustrated, then to make the 
curve on the tongue and to form the two slopes, making the dart. The 
background can next be cleaned out and the further depression made on 
the dart. This work requires considerable care and accurate cutting to 
make the darts look even, and is very good discipline. It is best not quite to 
finish several forms, — simply to block them out and then go over them again 
when the hand is more accustomed to the form. 

The next molding is made on a single curved piece, and contains the 
dart and double curves, producing a more elaborate form. (Illus. 341.) 



Illustration 3^1 




Plain Curved Molding 

This must be marked out with the calipers, picking out all the points and 
distances, after which the forms should be drawn with a soft pencil. The 
midrib can next be marked out with the parting tool and the double curve 
made with a small gouge. A larger gouge can then be used and the form 
modeled over to the groove, with a nearlv flat chisel. Next work out the 



294 



Wood Carvingf 



dart, keeping- a sharp edge down the center and making the corners sharp 
and clean. 

A.nother Easy Molding requiring great care, however, can be made 
on the same curve, as illustrated in No. 342. This is to be spaced off with 
the calipers, after which the form can be drawn with the soft pencil. Use 
a small gouge to start the outline of the curved forms, and the straight 
chisel or a parting tool to start the darts. The form can then be fin- 

Illustration 342 




Plain Curved Moldina 



ished as illustrated. The next two forms (343 and 344) are complex, mak- 
ing use of the acanthus leaf curling over at the top. This yields a very 
beautiful series of forms for elaborate work. Mark out carefully with the 
calipers the size or space to be occupied by each leaf, then draw each leaf 
carefully with a soft pencil, as illustrated in the first stage. The form can 



Illustration 34:; 




Aca'.ithus Leaf Moldini; 



then be cut in with a curved chisel, using the parting tool to make the rib 
up the center of each leaf. Next, lower the surface between each two 
leaves, the rib of the partl_y seen leaf to remain raised. Then the pipes 
and undulations on the leaflets can be modeled with dilTerent-sized gouges 



Fttrnitare and Other Advanced Work 295 

and flat curves. The top of the leaf can also be cut clown and modeled 
over, allowing the molding to show behind each leaf. It will be found quite 
difficult to get the edge to run straight. The spaces between the leaves at 
the top must be made rather deep. The four stages are well shown in the 
accompanying cut (344). 

Another style, on the same kind of molding, is shown in the next illus- 
tration. Some find this a little harder and some find it easier to make 
than the other one. It is to be done in the same way, marking out with 
the calipers, as before, the space to be occupied by each leaflet, then cutting 
down with the curved chisel the edge of the leaflet, as shown 
in the illustration, then sinking the part around the leaf, allowing the partly 
seen leaf to stand up in the middle. The surface is modeled by making the 
ridges and forming two sloping surfaces running to the end of each leaflet. 
It is a little difficult to make all these pipes equal in the beginning. All of 

Illustration 344 




- -'*-^' 



Acanthus Leaf Moldint 



this work should be cut m oak at first. This wood is a little tough and is 
not so liable to chip as walnut, cherry or mahogany. Disaster is sure to 
happen in a few places at first, but when the leaflet has been carved a num- 
ber of times, it can be done with ease. 

The cM^xt Piece of Carving illustrated is elaborate, and should not 
be attempted unless the pupil has modeled the form in clay a number of 
times. The shell form is one that is frequently used in carving, and, with 
the leaf, forms a nice shape to be used for many purposes, for instance, on 
a cornice, on a chair back or part of a settee, on picture frames, and so on. 

It is best not to copy these very elaborate forms from the illustrations. 
This would prove a little too difficult. They are simply placed here as 



296 



Wood Carving- 



examples of carving. Students will see carving of all kinds when their 
eyes become opened through the work, and good examples may be seen in 
wood, stone and metal on different buildings, which can be reproduced. It 
is only by frequent observation that pupils become aware of form and ac- 



lllustration 345 




i-^^,' J J 



Tartly Carved Piece, Suitable for Chair BaCli 

tually notice shape. Every time a different piece of work is carved, the 
student will have increased ability to perceive various forms. 

Forms Stiitdble for Carving* — lullustrations 346 and 347 show a 
variet}^ of frames that can be made of different sizes for many different pur- 
poses. Alade with narrow borders they are very suitable for water colors 

Illustrations 346-347 




? 



_j 



Frames Carved by Night School Pupils 



and engravings; made nmch heavier and of thicker wood they are suitable 
for oil colors and mirrors; made still larger, and with metal hat pins, they 
are suitable for hat racks, and are convenient pieces of furniture to have in 
different parts of the house. 



Furniture and Other Advanced Work 



297 



The series of chairs ilhistrated shoAv a variety of shapes. (IHus. 348.) 
Some of them may appear to be overloaded with carving. This is simply 
a matter of economy, and though I know the forms in some cases will be 
better if they were not carved so much, it is simply to provide surfaces for 
work that they were made originally. Some of these chairs consist of 
five pieces, each piece of which is heavily carved, thus affording the pupils 
several hours of work on each. The blanks for the chairs vary in price, 
some $3 to $5, according to the amount of labor expended upon them. The 
chairs are usually delivered in the white and doweled together, so that they 

Illustration 348 




Chairs Designed and Carved by Public School Pupils 



can be taken apart with a few taps of the mallet and carved. Two or three 
chairs will thus furnish occupation for a whole class for a number of 
periods. 

The designs are in no two cases alike. This will be found true with re- 
gard to every pattern in any material made by any of our classes, each child 
according to its capacity creating the forms most suited for use. I do not 
pretend to defend all the patterns. In some cases they are crude and could 
be made much better, but being the work that the child sometimes started 
before the teachers could modify or criticise, it has been finished and must 
stand on its merits. It is very easy for a good teacher to give good lessons 
in designing and construction, using as examples the good patterns or the 
bad ones made by the class. Examples of poor w^ork therefore teach by 



29S 



Wood Carving 



lustrations 349-350 





Female 
Italian Renascence Carving by Farari, in the Studio of the Authnr 



contrast. No class of people perceive errors and faults in designing and 
construction quicker than children. Usually they will be found to select 
the best. There is an endless variety of forms that afford practice for 
work in wood. Chests of various sizes can be made with six, eight, ten or 
twelve panels. Settees also give opportunity for large pieces of work and 
can be carved liberally all over. A variety of small work can be made, like 
book-racks, mirror-backs, screens, cabinets, closets, hanging shelves. Clock 
cases, half size and full length, are in demand and usually find a ready sale. 
Carving is work especially appropriate for children, for the reason that 
they are embodying value in the material upon which they work. This 



Furniture and Other Advanced Work 



299 



they realize h-om the beginning. They are also learning the value of per- 
sistent hard work, and they get a certain amount of knowledge of art forms 
and real drawing that cannot be acquired in any other way. Then- taste 
and appreciation of common things around them is enlarged, and the works 
of their hands usually enter into a great many places where taste and ap- 
preciation are lacking, and thus act as missionaries. This is especially true 
of the night schools. 

I am much surprised to notice the small number of schools among all 
the art institutions of the country where carving is thoroughly taught. It 



Illustration 351-354 





1— The rl.iiu I! lock 



2 — The Form Begun 





3— Carving More Advanced 4— The Finished Work 

Carving a Cupid's Head 



is taught in some, but in the. larger number it is entirely neglected. Mak- 
ing form in tough, resisting material is one of the truest and best methods of 



300 ♦ Wood Carving: 

gaining permanent and organic ideas of form. Surely this is especially 
important to the art workers in the higher fields of art. It certainly was a 
part of the education of some of the greatest of the old masters, who fre- 
quently carved in stone and other materials. The energy and diligence 
begotten by carving, where it is properly taught, are also of the utmost value 
in counteracting the disinclination to manual effort that occurs so often in 
children whose school hours are largely occupied with book studies. This 
fostering of an energetic disposition, along with true ideas of elementary art, 
is by no means the least important benefit of wood carving and real manual 
training. Most of us have got to work for a living, and education should 
give us energy for work instead of a disinclination for it. Not only this, but 
carving compels accuracy, attention to details, the doing of things well, in 
contradistinction to the carelessness in the work of one's hands which is 
sometimes begotten in children who learn from books alone. The carver, 
whether self-taught or learning" from an instructor, will cjuickly see that 
slovenly work will show, that the carving will reflect something of his own 
character. The pupil will also recognize the difference between the result 
when he tries to do his best, or when he is careless. The wood will tell the 
truth, always an important lesson. 

Cdrving in the Round* — In this part only a suggestion of what can 
be done is possible. In another volume I shall give detailed instruction in 
all kinds of wood carving, with many examples of all the styles. Very beau- 
tiful examples of wood carving still exist, made by artists of different periods. 
Wood of different kinds, especially the Italian chestnut, is suitable for sculp- 
tor's w^ork, and very elaborate work may be seen in Italy of groups of figures, 
etc. Examples of fine modern Italian carving are given in Illus. 349 and 
350, made by Farari. 

The series of four cuts on the previous page show the successive 
stages in blocking out a Cupid's head with wings: i, the plain block made of 
several pieces of wood glued together; 2, the same partly carved with form 
in the rough; 3, the head and wings showing distinctly, but still unfinished; 
4, the work as it appears finished. 

Two examples are given of winged griffins suitable for the arms of 
settees (Illus. 355-356). The first is shown partly carved, with the form only 
just beginning to show the intention. The block of wood Is three inches 
thick and is a piece of mahogany. It is clamped on the benches, as shown 



Furniture and Other Advanced "Work 



301 



in some of the other pictures 
of pupils working-, and is being- 
made by one of the advanced 
pupils of studio classes. The 
second form shows a similar 
piece of work of different de- 
sign entirely finished. The 
body consists of one block of 
wood, the wing being an addi- 
tion after the other part has 
been carved. Work of this 
character cannot be done un- 
less the pupils have a vivid 
memory of form and have had 
good m_anual training. 

Dolphins are freciuently 
carved in wood, and the fol- 
lowing example (Illus. 357) is 
frequently cut by some of the 
pupils. The form is changed 
and modified to suit any pur- 
pose, and is comparatively 
easy to cut. Both sides are 
carved, and it makes a suitable 
arm for chair or hall bench. 

A great variety of forms, 
such as iron and brass castings, 
or gas fixtures, grills and other 
ornamental objects, are first 
carved in wood and then used 
as patterns for making the 
castings. Several examples 
are given of forms of this kind, 
also architectural detail for in- 
terior work, such as caps, pilas- 
ters, panels, rosettes, etc. 



Illustration ^^^ 




Anil for Settee 
This illustrates the block of wood partly carved, with the 
head wings, etc., in the rough. The form is carved on both 
sides. 




AiioUk 1 Aim Inr Soltcu 
This is another form of similar character completely finished. 

Illustration 357 





Dolphin Ann for Chair 



302 



Wood Catving 



Illustrations 358-365 







•^ 




Carved Patterns for Metal 



These desi^^ns are carved in wood for various purposes, to be cast in metal. Many patterns for brass work, g-as 
and electric light fixtures, etc., are carved in wood first. 



BOOK FIVE 

Various Applications of Art 
Methods, Real Manual 
Training and Nature Study 



m 



J. CONSTRUCTION -Mechanical Drawing and Wood- Working 

2. CORRELATION of Art, Real Manual Training and Nature Study with Other 

Instruction 

3. SPECIAL SCHOOLS— (»'0 Night Schools, (&) Vacation Schools, (<') Normal Schools, 

{(l) Summer Schools 

4. OTHER APPLICATIONS— (a) Decorating School Rooms, (b) Backward Pupils, 

(c) Insane and Feeble Minded, {(I) Truant Schools, (e) Reformatory Institutions, 
(/) Miscellaneous 

5. THE FINE ARTS— Some Suggestions for Art Students 







!- 



< 




CHAPTER I 

ConstttJCtion in 
Woodwork and 
Mechanical 
Drawing 




XPERIENCE leads me to be- 
lieve that constructive work 
as taught in niany schools, 
similar to joinery or cabinet- 
making, and mechanical 
draughting, are of little value 
educationally, except to the 
specialist, without previous 
training in the art work and 
real manual training I have 
been advocating in the pre- 
ceding chapters. When pupils 
have acquired a certain dex- 
terity of hand and accuracy of 
eye and are able to draw, 
model and carve reasonably 
well, then it is of advantage for them to attempt constructive work and me- 
chanical drawing. They should then he about 14 years of age, or readv for 
the high school, and should have acquired complete control of their hands 
in manual dexterity, and be able to draw fairly w-ell and observe accurately. 
Then, and not until then, are they ready for tools and tool-processes and 
instruments of precision. 

The fallacy of teaching boys carpenter work or mechanical draught- 
20 (305) 



Pattern Making 
Various patterns made by the boys, to be cast in metal. 



306 



Various Applications 



ing without this elementary experience in real manual tramnig is illustrated 
in nearly all the pupils issuing from the so-called manual-training schools; 
beyond the limited trade processes in which they have been trained, they 

llustration 367 




Wood Working' 
A lesson in sawing. All forms are made from rough timber, the boys cutting it from planks as required. 



do not have manual dexterity. Any ordinary test will show this. Few of 
such graduates can do even the elementary art work illustrated in this book. 
They lack the ability to make the hand obey eye or mind in doing work 
outside of the few processes in which it is trained, and are of course almost 
wholly deficient on the art side. 

A. RddtCdt Fedture of our manual-training method is the absence of 
machinery, steam power, turning lathes, etc. Machine-shop methods have 
never yet produced and will never produce craftsmen who are mechanically 
and artistically equal to those of the best periods of history. Of course this 



Constftiction and Mechanical Drawing 



307 



is an industrial age, and our material progress so far has depended largely 
on the harnessed power of steam, electricity, etc., but in a measure this has 
been at the expense of the individual. No system of education or progress 
can atTord to miss the lessons of the great periods in craftsmanship, when 
the individual workers put their soul, feelings and emotions into the work of 

Illustration ::,68 




Making- Joints 
A roug-h freehand drawing of the joint under discvission is shown on the blackboard. The teacher is testing- its 



their hands in stone, metal and wood. We are far from equaling the 
buildings and masonry of the past, and our mechanics and common people 
scarcely realize what artistic excellence means in metal, stone and w^ood. 



I 

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G H 



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XI 


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t; 


CS 


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Constrttction and Mechanical Drawing^ 



309 



The idea is too common that a manual-training school should be a ma- 
chine shop. This was one of the many forms of so-called manual train- 
ing that the author early tried and found wanting. The deficiencies of 
machine-shop practice for the purposes of educating hand and eye, as well 
as brain, are now generally recognized among progressive educators, but 

Illustration 369 




Building' Construction 
Unfinished model of simple frame building-, showing detail construction. Work of this kind is of the greatest 
practical value to thebojs, and gives excellent opportunity to correlate mechanical drawing. 



these deficiencies are all the more pronounced when boys are put into ma- 
chine-shop practice without the elementary training already advocated. 

It is not denied that using machines gives some skill, and that they 
are in their proper place in the trade school, but there are many operations 
for handwork in constructions of various kinds that produce more skill and 



310 Various Applications 

facility, and therefore these are more educational. The time of the young 
during the nascent period is too precious to be wasted in teaching them 
how to use machines; it should be devoted to the development of their own 
organism, to the training of eye and hand as well as of mind. 

The whole tendency of modern industry is to make machines of us 
soon enough, and how pitiful the narrowness of life, the one-sided develop- 
ment, of the millions whose capacity is measured only by their ability to 
operate an ingenious machine. The fact that many occupations and trades 
do thus confine both mind and body within a stultifying range, is all the 
more reason for so developing the mind and body that, while doing to per- 
fection even the routine work one may have to do, he or she may be so 
trained as to rise above the otherwise narrowing effects of constant attend- 
ance upon machines or mechanical processes and be able to appreciate and 
enjoy the beautiful and good in nature and in the common things of every- 
day life. It is a great thing to be so trained as to be happy, joyous and en- 
thusiastic — to be so educated as to know how to enjoy life and how to 
make the most of it in whatever station our lot may be cast. 

Mdchine-Shop Practice Has Its Place. — Since long and costly ex- 
perience has demonstrated the greater educational power of hand operations, 
the time has come to relegate machine-shop practice to its proper place. 
In the technical school or trade school, it serves a remarkably useful pur- 
pose. That purpose is to impart to the youth who expects to be a me- 
chanic or an engineer the expert training and practical knowledge of ma- 
chines and processes employed in his trade or profession. Hence there is 
even more necessity for trade schools, engineering schools, textile schools 
and similar technical institutes than there is for colleges of medicine and 
surgery, divinity or law. But just as there are better means of giving ele- 
mentary and high-school instruction mentally than that of introducing the 
studies that specially quaHfy the doctor, lawyer or minister for their pro- 
fessions, so there are better exercises for imparting real manual training to 
the youth than the trade processes and machine methods so important to 
the specialist in mechanics, steam or electricity. 

In technical schools for special pupils, machinery of various kinds and 
the use of power (electricity or steam) may be employed with reason, but I 
must be understood here to protest only against the misuse of these things 
during the earlv stages of many boys' lives. Before boys are 15 or 16 years 



Plate Twenty-six 




Illustrating Roof Construction 

I — King Post Roof Truss 2 — Truss for Curb Roof 
(311) 



3J2 



Various Applications 



of age, if they have had real manual training any good teacher can pick out 
the ones suited to be engineers and mechanical workers. Their capacity 
in these directions will then have showni itself. These, of course, can enter 

Illustration 370 




Wood Working- 
The first boy is cutting a dovetail, and the second boy is sharpeni.ig a chisel; correct positions are shown. 



the special or trade schools, but to give machinery and machine work to 
large classes of young boys irrespective of their capacity and dispositions, 
before they have had real manual training and a certain amount of art 
work, is as foolish educationally as to make them all carpenters only. 

Large Economy* — This point cannot be too strongly emphasized In 
order to correct a prevailing false notion about manual training. It also 
shows that a costly equipment of machinery is not necessary for an ad- 



Consttuction and Mechanical Drawing: 



3J3 



vanced manual-training- school, and this demonstrates the feasibility of a far 
more general application of manual-training methods than has heretofore 
been thought possible. We see too that the introduction of rational meth- 
ods of manual training in cities now provided with machinery in their man- 
ual-training departments, will pave the way for utilizing such equipments of 
machinery for trade schools or technical institutes, thus accomplishing an- 
other good ol)ject at a minimum of expense. 

This inexpensiveness of equipment for the mechanical department of 
our manual-training method is all the more important when attended, as 
it is, by better results. How cheaply this department can be fitted up, as 
contrasted with the expensive machine-shop plan, may be inferred from the 
list of tools for a room large enough to accommodate twenty benches, given 



Illustration 371 





Qiieen Post Rool" Truss 



at the close of this chapter. Twenty pupils will form a suitable class for one 
instructor, and 300 pupils can receive one and a half hours' lesson in one 
week during sessions from 9 a. m. to 2 p. m. The list has been found by ex- 
perience to suit classes of high-school boys, and to be reasonably complete. 



314 

Illustratinns 372-376 



Various Applications 









Model of Ai-cliili;cturLil Column 
Base and Entablature 




I — Dovetail Scarf Joint 

2 — Scarf Joint 

3 — Complex Mortise Slip Joint 

4— Simple Mortise Slip Joint 



Construction and Mechanical Drawing 



315 



Illustration 377 




Pupil drawing- projections free hand 



Use of Head Work. — Believing that one who lacks practice in 
skill cannot become skillful, we do not substitute machines for skilled opera- 
tions. Even round forms and their modifications are made by hand with 
hand tools, instead of being turned upon a lathe. This compels the develop- 
ment of a skill of hand and eye not possible to those who make sim- 
ilar forms only on machines. And this makes the hand more ready to 
work a machine skillfully when necessary. In short, we get a co-ordination 
of hand, eye, and mind by handicraft that no aftiount of machine work will 
compensate for. Along with mechanical precision we also get an artistic 
excellence of execution and encourage originality of conception not pos- 
sible with mechanical repetitions, or repetitions of forms made mechanically. 

Rotdtion of Work* ■ — In this branch of manual training pupils ro- 
tate from mechanical drawing to work in wood during each lesson, just as 
in their previous training they rotated the branches of drawing, modeling 
and carving. Do not let them take separate courses of one or the other. 
The best plan is to correlate the two branches by making the pupils draw 
the forms in their various stages and then construct them, of course giv- 
ing thorough instruction in use of tools and instruments first. 



3J6 



Various Applications 



The abstruse ideas embodied in working drawings, plans, sections, 
etc., should become as familiar to the pupils as their previous studies have 
made them familiar with common forms. Pupils should become accus- 
tomed from the beginning to making and reading these drawings and len- 

lUustration 378 




Isometric Drawing' 
A demonstration in isometric drawing, the cube and variouo fouits are being explained. 



dering them in material. The planning should be part and parcel of the 
doing. Only in this way will the youth grasp the vital connection between 
the two and be able to make the most of it. A course in mechanical draft- 
ing dissociated from the execution of the work, is as deiicient educationally 
as freehand drawing which is not correlated with other school work. It 
is as barren of results as to expect a love of nature or of the beautiful in 
art to be created by the drawing and contemplation of stupid wooden blocks 
and the type forms by un\A'illing pupils. 

Objects of Instruction* — The object is to give a deep and com- 
prehensive training, rather than a detailed and one-sided mechanical educa- 
tion. It is not possible to teach a part of all the many pursuits, but it is 
possible to teach processes which are the best for them all. Thus in wood 
working, we do not give a detailed view of every process and every tool, but 
we give a thorough training in the principles, and facility in using the most 



Construction and Mechanical Drawing" 



317 



lllustralion 379 



J 



important tools. A pupil ought to know that there are classes of tools, and 
should get a logical understanding of the use and possibilities of the principal 
tools in each class. If we give instruction in a great variety of tools, we 
defeat the purpose of this work. The tendency to teach tools instead of 
processes and skill, seems to be universal. We must 
adhere to fundamentals, we must teach the pupils 
to discern between the important and the trivial, 
the fundamental and the accidental. 

Each pupil must learn that the tools in them- 
selves are not the end, but only the means with 
which we shape ideas or concepts. Hence, we 
should acquire early such control over tools that 
our attention can be given to the work we have to 
do with them, instead of our thoughts being direct- 
ed wholly to the method of using the tools. In 
other words, the movements with tools should be 
made automatic as soon as possible, just as in draw- 
ing we acquire unconscious control over the mus- 
cles and nerves that guide chalk, pencil or brush. 
It is only when we have obtained this automatic 
action that we can concentrate our entire energy 
to putting thought into work. 

Put Art First* — In some systems, wood 
carving is taught in connection with joinery and 
cabinet making, and is taught in the same mechani- 
cal fashion. This is radically wrong. Wood carving- 
is as distinct from woodwork as freehand drawing 
is from mechanical drawing. Wood carving 
should always precede cabinet making, and be 
taught in connection with clay modeling and free- 
hand drawing. In the principal manual-training 
schools, the mechanical product is given chief prominence, and such work 
is generally good, but the artistic product is very poor, in manv schools re- 
ceiving no recognition at all. The art part, which is the vital part for the 
young, is neglected to develop mechanics. Introduce mechanical work 
only after a thorough elementary training in art and manual dexterity. 



Ml 



if I' 



This is made in wood and is 
divided in the center to show 
construction. The sections are 
dowelled and fit toarether. 



3JS 



Various Applications 



A Good Teacher is of more consequence than good tools. The 
teacher should be a master of the method and of all the exercises in which 
he assumes to instruct. Too frequently, committees and others think a 

Illustration 380 




House Building 
A lesson on stairs. Tlie house is the result of the combined eflbrts ot four boys. All the joints in the 
background have been made by the jnipils. 



skilled mechanic is the only proper instructor in this branch of manual 
training. It would be difficult to make a greater mistake. I have never 
known a carpenter or mechanic able to teach this work in the right way. 
In many such classes the boys make plenty of joints and enjoy it thoroughly, 
but the educational value of the work is lost sight of and the mind and the 
hand are not intimately related to the things, facts and processes of life as 
they should be. 



Construction and Mechanical Drawingf 



319 



If a true teacher is taken, however, instead of a mechanic, even the sub- 
jects of glue, nails, etc., will be made an avenue for much fruitful discussion 
and instruction. Every point will be made of interest, and its connection with 
other phases of work and study will be comprehended by the pupil so that he 
can make actual use of his knowledge. Unless the exercises are correlated 
in this way with the other studies, bench work has no business in the schools. 

Our Course in Mechamcal Draiving includes the ordinary course 
in most schools, the study of mechanical perspective, and of the architectural 



Illustration 381 




Wood Working 
Pupil applying try square to a planed surface. 



styles, and some designs and construction. In education, where we must 
consider the development of the esthetic principles, as well as the practical 
elements, such a course will be found more instructive than the usual one- 



320 



Various Applications 



sided and totally mechanical course. The teacher should strive to give a 
thorough understanding of the principles of mechanical drawing, but should 
not enter into a lengthy and detailed discussion of machines. 

Illustration 382 




Apparatus for Various School Purposes 
The boys design and manufacture considerable of the laboratory and other apparatus needed in the school 
Such work is not allowed at the expense of the educational object of this training. This model is to illustrate the 
principle of the incline plane and the principle of friction in physics. 



Parallel and angular perspective are dwelt upon at length, architectural 
styles are similarly treated, and architectural design and construction are 
discussed. Our object, at this stage, is not to make draftsmen or architects, 
but to open up the minds of the pupils to the immense possibilities and the 



Construction and Mechanical Drawingf 



321 



intrinsic beauty of the suljject. This course will be as valuable to one 
desiring to devote his life to fine art, as to one who wishes to become a 
mechanical engineer, an architect, draftsman, farmer, etc., while at the same 
time it embraces real manual training. 

Thus far, the chief attention has been given to the development of man- 
ual skill, co-ordinated with e3^e-training and mind-culture, and to the study 
of form, historical ornament, the use of water-colors, and charcoal, etc. 
Now, Avhen the abstractions included in projections, sections, developments, 
shades and shadows, and angular perspective, are dealt with, it is surprising 
how quickly and vividly the pupils will comprehend these subjects, and what 
freedom and breadth they will exhibit in their renderings. To a pupil with- 

lllustration 383 




Mechanical Drawing 
Demonstrating the principle of a screw and showing application of helix. 



out this previous training, a mechanical drawing is a dead object; the 
execution of such a drawing will be devoid of all artistic beauty, and the 
condition of the mind of the pupil will, generally, be at a still lower stage; 
thus the soul and the imagination are confined and restrained, and the possi- 
bilities of which they are capable are not even opened to viev,-, 
21 



322 Various Applications 

The course begins with a discussion of the instruments. One of the 
best exercises, and one which brings into use all the tools, is the construction 
of some simple frets or geometric ornaments. This is much better than a 
simple exercise in drawing lines, or proceeding at once with some geometri- 
cal problem, or working drawing, and gives freedom, and a logical 
understanding of the instruments and their use. 

Geometric problems are then taken. This will be an additional exercise 
with the instruments. Working drawings follow; first, of a very simple 
nature, neatness and accuracy being the essentials at this stage; later, more 
comjilex figures may be taken, such as joints, etc. 

Throughout the entire course there is every opportunity to consider the 
individuality of the pupils. When the teacher is discussing any subject, the 
principle should be made prominent, and the pupils should make many notes 
and sketches. Those who exhibit more aptitude, should make more com- 
plex drawings. In this way, each pupil may make a different drawing, — all, 
however, showing the same principle. With proper management, this will 
not conflict with the necessary uniformity of class work. 

Isometrical drawing, the simplest mechanical perspective, is taken next. 
This will be found useful in illustrating constructions, projections, and pene- 
trations. Sections and developments follow in order. The choice of 
particular subjects should be left to the pupils as much as possible. The 
teacher, at all times, should exercise the greatest care and discretion in the 
selection of typical figures. 

By this time the pupils will be found to work with considerable freedom 
and insight into the principles involved, and will be ready for the more 
advanced exercises. The mechanical units are now taken, — screws, nuts, 
propellers, cams, gears, etc. As all the pupils have had a previous experience 
in water-color and charcoal, they should, at various intervals, make shaded or 
colored drawings. Of course, too much time must not be consumed in this 
way. The class should, at times, get some practical experience. Visits to 
large machine shops and constructive establishments should be made; in 
many cities there are abundant opportunities to visit large industrial plants, 
locomotive and electrical machine factories, and shipyards, etc. These 
excursions can be made very interesting and will prove highly valuable to 
the students. 

Tracing and 1:)lue-printing should be treated at the best opportunity. 



Construction and Mechanical Drawing 



323 



Shades and shadows, parallel and angular perspective, should receive a great 
deal of attention, as they are valuable educational subjects. 

Architecture is taken next, the chief aim being to give a good under- 
standing of styles, and their characteristics. This is a most valua[)le study, 
for, at all times, the character of a period, or a nation is embodied in its 

r ust;ation 384 





Fi-eeband Perspective 
The boys are given frequent opportunity to make large drawings in perspective as above. 



buildings. A good set of architectural models is almost indispensable for 
this work. The students should visit different typical buildings, and some 
time should be spent in instructive discussion. Some time should also be 
given to planning and construction. Pupils should not be allowed to make 
actual copies of architectural drawings, or plans of houses, but should make 
original plans of their own, involving individual ideas. No matter how 
crude in the beginning, this gives them concrete ideas and experience. The 
same is true of machine drawing; the pupils should not be always copying 
drawings of machines, often beyond their comprehension, — as is sometimes 
done, — but should work at principles, on simple forms which they fully 
understand, and that are typical. Much time is wasted in fancy lettering, 
and over unnecessarv detail. 



324 



Various Applications 



Btdckbodrd Work should be carried on as much as possible. All the 
pupils in the constructive departments should work at intervals on the black- 
board. All the ordinary geometric forms and simple constructions should 
be drawn full size and freehand, until memorized. Sketches should also be 
made of architectural details, plans and styles, and the forms should be 
repeated and modified many times. 

The full benefits of such a course can be bestowed only upon pupils wdio 
have had the previous elementary art training. To them, the artistic 

Illustration 385 




A Model for Building 
Construction showing principles of " vaultinj: 



elements will appeal as much as the practical ones. They will leave school 
with their minds opened, with skilled and responsive hands and eyes, and 
with a developed love for the beautiful and the true. 

The teacher is as yet comparatively rare who is capable of giving this 



Construction and Mechanical Drawing 325 

phase of rational manual training, just as the teachers are not yet numerous 
who have mastered drawing and modeling in connection with school work, 
but the sphere for such teachers is large and increasing. No branch of 
education offers so line an opportunity for teachers, both for usefulness and 
for pecuniary reward. And the teacher who masters both the art side and 
the mechanical side of real manual training will have the still wider oppor- 
tunity that awaits the real master in any profession. 

In Teaching the Mechanical Side of manual training, thorough in- 
struction on and discussion of all tools, materials, and forms made should be 
constant. Nothing should be taken for granted. I have frequently seen 
boys making a joint or piece of work without an itelligent idea of its name, 
use or purpose, and this is also true in regard to tools. 

Every tool should be explained thoroughly and its use made manifest 
in as many directions as possible. Lessons should also be given on the 
various woods and materials used (glues, varnishes, nails, etc.), and upon 
the use and applications of the constructions made. Upon all these sub- 
jects, and other phases of the work, the true teacher will have become thor- 
oughly informed by actual experience mainly, for no manual or text book 
exists or can be written that will take the place of the knowledge the teacher 
will acquire by actually doing all branches of the work. 

It is of great importance that the course should contain exercises in 
making the principal typical forms. Don't attempt too many forms, or 
amateur or freak forms, — a weakness in other methods. This error is 
caused by an undue desire to show finished product and useful articles. 
While this is an important factor, it should not dominate the desire of ob- 
taining the greatest amount of skill and training. 

Each pupil should be provided with a note book and sketch book, in 
which he should write descriptions of the tools and their uses, and also make 
rough drawings and an isometrical view of each exercise. 

The Simpler Exercises* — After learning the manipulation of the 
most important tools and appliances, the pupil is ready to construct 
the simpler forms of joints — first, the plain butt, miter, half and slip 
joints, later the varieties of these. These exercises are all very valuable and 
they are ideal forms at this stage. It is not necessary that each pupil 
should make a graded series or even one of each of these, but he should get 
a thorough understanding of them all. It will be sufficient if he makes 



Plate Twenty-seven 




Simple and Complex Geometric Models 

These are models which may be used to aood advantaa:e in geometry and drawing- for light and shade, 
and in mechanical drawing, in "teaching intersections, sections", surface development, etc. They may be 
Jeproduced in wood by hand work, as exercises in manual training. 

(326) 



Constfttction and Mechanical Drawingf 



327 



three or four of the joints — in tliis way the class may easily ])e treated in- 
dividually. 

Another feature of value is the construction of geometric forms, such 
as cuhes, prisms, cylinders, cones, etc. (Illus. 386.) The simplest of these 

Illustration 3^6 




Wood Working— Geometric Forms 

These g-eometric forms have been made hy hand by the boys without lathes. They are made to 
scale. The cone is made in several sections and fits together, showing the conic sections. 



forms are taken — the cube, the various prisms, the cylinder and the frus- 
trums. These forms are especially valuable as exercises, because they require 
logical thinking and render necessary various consecutive steps in their 
construction, as well as yielding unusual manual skill. It is not necessary 
that the pupils should make all the geometric forms — a few of the type 
forms made to accurate scale will be suf^cient. 

After this pattern making may be taken up. Beginning with a thor- 



328 



Various Applications 



oiigh discussion of the subject, the pupil is then ready to construct some 
simple pattern, such as wrench, crank, sledge hammer, head, brace, etc., 
a few samples of which are shown in the initial letter on page 305 

By this time each pupil is thoroughly acquainted with all the tools and 



Illustration 387 




A Lesson in Perspective 

A series of frames are made and used in the class rooms for demonstrating perspective in varioiis ways. 
The object, with ground plan picture plane on glass, vanishing lines, point of sight, etc., are shown in 
various positions. The teacher explaining parts. 



processes, and has some genei'al experience. At various stages of the 
course, attention should be given to shai-pening tools. Pupils should 
master this work, without which the best tools soon become useless. 

Advanced Work* — Pupils are now ready to take up the more ad- 
vanced exeixises, and very accurate and fine work may reasonably be ex- 



Construction and Mechanical Drawings 



329 



pected. Next in order may be taken the various complex joints, snch as 
the mortise, dovetail, brace joints, the scarfs, and varieties of these. Then 
advanced geometric forms may l)e taken — pyramids, cones, grooved cylin- 
ders, cone in sections, etc. (Page 326.) Advanced patterns come next, 
such as model for weight, cast-iron bracket, fly wheel, and parts of ma- 
chinery (Illus. 388), 

Illustration 388 




Wood Working- 

These are forms and patterns in wood cut by hand tools entirely by high school boys. The cone shows the 
conic sections, ani is doweled so that it comes apart. 



In these more advanced exercises the work may be carried on in- 
dividually. Since some pupils will have acquired unusual skill, they ought 
to make elaborate exercises. Those who have not developed so readily 
should be given exercises best suited to their stage. 

The greatest skill is typified in advanced construction. This em- 
braces frames, cabinets, furniture, sashes, doors, roof trusses, etc. Some- 
times it is well for an advanced class to combine in constructing some large 
project, such as a frame house (page 309), or a large piece of furniture, simi- 
lar to a vestment case (page 282), or case of closets for museum, or book- 
cases, etc., — anything suitable for school purposes. 

It is not necessary that every piece or part of the work should be made 
by the boys. Duplicate parts can be cut out at the mill, turned work, if 



Plate Twenty-eight 




niTRE JOINT 





/■ N 


(>^ 


■o 









MODEL F0!3. 



C /V5T-IE0N WEIGHT 



FULL JIZE 




WOOD-WOaK EXEaCl5E5 





Drawings for Wood Working- 
working drawings of typical exercises, one-fourth actual size. Each pupil makes a drawing of the object or a 
sketch thereof In his note-book. The model for cast-Iron weight Is to be cut entirely by hand. The test-tube rack, to 
be used In the chemistry class with other apparatus, Is made by the boys. The advanced geometric forms, shown at 
bottom to the right, are to be made to scale without the use of machinery or lathe. The complex joint drawing 
shows the principle of the mitre. 

(330) 



Construction and Mechanical Drawing- 



33J 



required, can be ordered; doors and sashes can be framed by machinery 
at the mill, but all the draughting, detail drawings, filling and constructing 

Illustrations 389-394 








Complex Mortise and Tenon Joint 
Complex Mortise and Tenon Joint 
Mortise Slip Joint 



Dovetail Joint 
Mortise and Tenon 
Halved Dovetail 



can readily be done by the boys in a class of this kind. Nearly all the 
elaborate apparatus in wood used in teaching physics can be made by the 
boys in a class of this character, and also many useful things required in 
laboratories. 



332 Various Applications 



WOOD-WORKING COURSE. 

I. Use of tools and methods. 

Tools — Rip saw, cross-cnt saw, Jack plane, smooth plane, Try square, 

gauge. 
Squaring to right dimensions. 
Working with scribe knife, block plane, back saw. 
Beveling with plane. 
vSandpapering. 

2. Simple joints. 

Butt joint, miter joint, half joint, slip joint, varieties. 
Laying out work — Gluing and clamping. 
Use of bevels, chisels and chalk. 

3. Sharpening tools. 

Grinding, slip stones, shellac, alcohol, glue, varnish. 

4. Simple geometric forms. 

Cube, square prism, hexagonal prism, octagonal prism, cylinder. 
Use of compasses, planing round, etc. 

5. Simple constructions. 

Frame, wall bracket, brace, box, etc. 

Brace and bit, nailing, firmer gauges, scraper. 

6. Easy exercises in pattern making. 

Sledge hammer, wrench, crank, bracket, quoit, grate and other sim- 
ple exercises. 

7. Complex joints. 

Mortise joint, dovetail joint, brace joint, varieties of these. 

8. Advanced geometric forms. 

Pyramids, square hexagonal and octagonal, cone and frustrum. 
Cylinder with grooves, cone in sections. 

9. Pattern making. 

Fly wheel, weights, cams. Details of machinery. 
10. Advanced constructions. 

Brace, roof trusses, bridges, doors, frames, frame house, furniture. 




Plate Twenty-nine 



oq a- 3 



2.H 



re cu 

IT. " 

sr3 



S 3 
(11 i-^ 




C7 

CO 

rt 

•IK 

H 

IE 

?d 

>■ 

o 

TV 

t 





334 



Variotts Applications 



Toots for Wood-Working Department* — Equipment for a class of 



twenty pupils: 

20 benclies 

20 iron smooth planes 
20 wooden jack planes 
20 iron block planes 
20 back saws 
20 nail hammers 
20 try scjuares 
20 marking gauges 
20 scribe knives 
20 bevels, 
20 screw- drivers 
20 mallets 
20 oil-stones 
20 steel oilers 
20 rules 

20 bench hooks 
20 dust brushes 
2 cross-cut saws 
2 rip saws 
2 turning saw- frames 
2 keyhole sav^-- pads 
-J doz. turning saws 
■| doz. keyhole saws 
^ doz. firmer chisels, ■§ to i inch 
-J doz. firmer gauges, \ to i inch 
4^ doz. spoke shaves 
\ doz. rabbet planes 
4 doz. carpenter's pincers 
2 doz. saw files 



^ doz. compasses 

1 combination plane 

2 bit braces 

2 auger bits, each 5, f , -J, f inch 
I doz. German bits 

\ doz. center bits 

3 doz. rose countersinks " 
Large iron scjuare 

I grindstone 
I set slip stones 
I panel gauge 

I trammel 

I doz. files 

-J doz. cabinet scrapers 

I hatchet 

•J doz. brad avv'ls and nail punches 

Glue pot and furnace 

Shellac and alcohol 

Lamp black 

Sperm oil 

Chalk 

Paint brushes 

Sandpaper 

Four trusses 

Blackboards 

Closets 

3 doz. handscrews 

Woods: White pine, poplar, cher- 
ry, mahogany, pear, walnut. 




-0 

> 



336 



Various Applications 



COURSE IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. 

Scales, T and set squares used in constructing simple geometric ornaments 
or frets — later the compasses. Inking and drawing. Erasing and 
cleaning:. 



I — Use of tools 
II — Geometric problems 
III — Working drawings 
IV — Isometric drawings 
V — Projections 
VI — Penetrations 
VII — Sections 



VIII — Developments 
IX — Screws, cams, gears, etc 
X — Tracing and blue printing 
XI — Shades and shadows 
XII — Parallel perspective 
XIII — Angular perspective 
XIV — Architecture 



EQUIPMENT REQUIRED 

Twenty sets of instruments, including divider with pen, pencil, and 
needle-point parts and lengthening bar, a plain divider, steel bow pencils and 
steel bow pen, ruling pen with joint, box with leads. 



20 adjustable drawing tables 

20 drawing boards, 20x26 

20 T squares 

20 set squares, 45 deg. 7 inches 

20 set squares, 60 deg. 9 inches 

20 triangular scales " 

20 bottles India ink. black 

20 bottles India ink. blue 

20 bottles India ink, red 

Portfolios, frames, water colors, etc. 



40 tinting saucers 

40 brushes 

20 note books 

Pencils, grade H. H. 

Drawing paper, 17x24 

20 dusting brushes 

Thumb tacks 

Pencil and ink rubbers 

Tracing cloth, blue printing outfit 



Exercises in Metal Work are prominent in some manual-training 
schools. Usually these exercises consist for a few terms of portions 
of the work of machine shop and the blacksmith shop — a little chipping, 
filing and fitting; molding and casting, forging and welding, ornamental 
Ironwork and tinsmithing and perhaps plumbing. Later on the opera- 
tions consists of machine-tool practice. With the exception of wrought- 
iron work, which readilv lends itself to ornamental and artistic treatment, 



Construction and Mechanical Drawing 337 

such work is entirely mechanical. No artistic work is attempted, the aes- 
thetic idea is entirely wanting. Carefully graded forms are used, and the 
patterns and exercises of one manual-training school can usually be found in 
almost every other. Even the forms made in tinsmithing are nearly all alike. 
Experience with a variety of these operations leads me to believe that 
the proper place for most of such work in metal is in the trade schools. 
At most of the manual-training schools the authorities themselves will state 
that " no trades are taught." Why then give portions of trade operations 
when fundamentals should or could be taught? If the work is given for 
its educational value, this should be done. A large part of the educational 
value is secured in the construction course just given in brief. The opera- 
tions that are not thus covered are mainly of a trade character, rather than 
educational in their function. In many manual-training schools the present 
tendency is to build steam engines, dynamos, bicycles, etc. Too many boys 
are spoiled and too much energy is thus wasted. I have known all indi- 
vidual and educational efforts of pupils and teachers of an entire school to 
be wasted for a term this way. Much more attention should be given in 
manual-training schools to the artistic use of various metals, in wrought-iron, 
in brass, in molding and casting, in forging and hammered work. 






22 



IN CONCLUSION 



The author extends his sincere thanks to a number of pupils 
in his schools and several friends who have aided him, directly and 
indirectly. Special appreciation and recognition are due the following : 

Mr Herbert Myrick, for valuable aid, advice and assistance 
throughout the entire work. 

Prof W. S. Long, in nature study. 

Mr Bernard Uhle, in the carving. 

Roman Steiner, for various drawings and help in chapter on construction. 



(338) 



INDEX 



Abstract work — energy wasted by 50, geometric forms 
226, should come naturally 174 

Abstruse ideas should become familiar 316 

Acanthus leaf molding 294, 295 

Accuracy — after facility Si, SS, 9S, 122, 126, 140; exercises 
to compel 124, 01 perceptive powers created 25 

Ambidextrous -work — anthemion used for practice in 
loi, 102; blackboard designing in 66, 136; co- 
ordination in 70, defense for 4S, educates indi- 
vidual 47, especial care to left hand 79, So, 137 ; 
left hand trained for educational value 48, 51; 
loop forms good practice in S3 ; Meissonier's 
opinion on 51, old education neglected both 
hands 50, produces sympathetic influence of all 
sets of muscles 47 

Angelo, Michael — eye, not hand, for instruments ot 
precision 9, essentialities first 93, 14S 

Angelo's Dying Slave, painting from 40S 

Angelo's Sybil 404 

Animal forms (see also Bird forms and Fish forms) — 
advice to teachers 249, Barye casts for schoolroom 
use 1S2, 249; Barye casts illustrated 213, 246; 
directions for modeling 199, 204, 247; drawing 
jjigs from life 414, drawing the horse 413, en- 
larging in wax 260, frequent sketching recom- 
mended 415, general form first 249, illustrations 
of iSi, 213, 246; individual taste ol pupils con- 
sulted 247, modeling from 415, modeling from 
birds 250, model for each pupil 24S, model the 
best teacher 249, sketching from cattle 416, tool 
marks vs. smoothness 249, work by grammar 
pupils 251, ■working on, illustrated 1S6, 247 

Antefix of Parthenon 104 

Anthemion — ambidextrous practice in 102, antefix of 
Parthenon 104, basis of most beautiful art forms 
103, combined with scroll loj, 107; directions for 
carving 2S5, directions for modeling 241, funda- 
mental Greek form 102, graded curves in 102, 
ideal form, not imitation 104, illustration of 
carved form 2S7, love of Greeks for 104, modeled 
form illustrated 241, tangential curvature in 104, 
various arrangements of 242 

Antique forms — plaster models from 105, vs. natural 
forms for schoolroom 20S, working on illustrated 
223 

Antonius on the divine power in nature 345 

Apple, directions for modeling 209, 212 

Architectural forms for drawing — five styles repre- 
sented 1S2, illustrations of 1S3, 1S4; memory 
drawing of makes good practice 103, practical 
application 1S4, styles learned by drawing them 
342 



Architecture — aim to understand styles 323, archi- 
tectural models indispensable 323, original plans 
and original ideas 323, typical forms and princi- 
ples first 323, unnecessary detail should be 
avoided 323 

Aristotle — bodily health and moral character first i, 
hand instrument of instruments 22, true education 
exalts and expands mind i, utility alone of little 
value I 

Armour institute's methods 54 

Art — (see also Drawmg, Manual-training drawing and 
Art students, suggestions to), art and mechanical 
sides taught both together 325, art in handicraft 
very rare 30, artist's views of instruction desired 
67, art methods make knowledge automatic 59, 
atmosphere of in school room 20S, bad use of art 
work in schools 52, compels observation, reflec- 
tion, action 45, 340; divorced from commercial 
systems 44, d_rill and designing necessary ad- 
juncts 46, emotions aroused by 360, forms alone 
cannot elevate mind 3S5, good art requires good 
ideas 57, imitative work at schools 56, lack of 
training in common schools 36, need of in funda- 
mental work 44, Philadelphia school of industrial 
19, 27, 33, 92, 192, 22S, 256, 262, 270; preliminary 
step to manual training 44, required in all pur- 
suits 46, should precede mechanical work 317, 
symbolism in explained 17S, iSo; true meaning 
and use of 44, vital part in many pursuits 45, 
work under name of 41, wrong methods often 
engender dislike for3S6 

Art methods — compel reflection and action 45, co- 
ordinate memories and ideas 339, correlation with 
school work 339, 357 ; make knowledge auto, 
matic 59, unify and solidify ideas 339, various ap- 
plications of 303 

Art, Philadelphia school of industrial — clay modeling 
class illustrated 27, cost of manual training 
plant 33, drawing and painting class illustrated 92, 
modeling room illustrated 192, samples of gram- 
mar grade work 22S, wax designs by pupils 256, 
wood carving class illustrated 19, 262; wood 
carving examples 270 

Art students, suggestions for — carving in the round 
illustrated 396, characteristic of best illustrators 
407, charcoal drawing 405, 407; charcoal sketch 
illustrated 406, don't follow one style407, drawing 
from the nude illustrated 406, drawing the horse 
illustrated 413, fitting for minor arts 405, good 
artisans vs. good artists 402, landscape painting 
and drawing in the Adirondacks 403, life work 
409, methods of art schools criticised 500, Michael 



(339) 



340 



Index 



Angelo even designed ink bottles 402, modeling a 
vase illustrated 399, modeling from animal forms 
415, modeling from life illustrated 410, 411,412; 
modeling from the figure 412, normal class carv- 
ing illustrated 397, painting in water color from 
casts 40S, painting Angelo's Dying Slave illus- 
trated 40S, preparing for fine art work 402, 
Raphael's study for the Madonna del Cardellino 
417, Rembrandt's elephant illustrated and ex- 
plained 39S, schools' greatest fault 399, sketrhing 
from life illustrated 409, study sketches of old 
masters 406, summer art work 413, superficial 
vs. real art training 399, teachers needn't be gen- 
iuses in art 402, when it is right to specialize 403 

Artists — (see also Art students, suggestions for) 
carving part of education of old masters 300, give 
cai-e and pains to seemingly trifling details 407, 
good artists sketch constantly 143, great artists 
simplify things 149, greatest could model 1S7, 
judgment of should be sought 6S 

Arts, fine — see Art students, suggestions for 

Arts, fitting for the minor 405 

Backward pupils — can best learn by " doing " 3S9, 
humanitarian object 3S9, nascent period of 390, 
often especially apt in art methods 3S9 

Balliet, Dr — no true distinction between hand and brain 
w^ork iS 

Banana, dii-ections for modeling 214 

Barye casts— children's love for 249, illustrations of 
213, 246; use of preferred in schoolroom 1S2, 249 

Basket, directions for modeling 206 

Beauty— as rendered by "pagans" 153, a universal 
hunger 254, common heritage of 254, appreciation 
of how best taught 60, contented mind through 
knowledge of 6, drawing creates knowledge ot 19 
how acted 39, goodness and truth examples of 254, 
human responsiveness to 254, joy of perceiving 
3, 340; knowledge of makes contented mind even 
in drudgery 6, 310; love for in nature cultivated 
60, 20S; moral influence of 6, organic impressions 
of produced 6, jierception of developed 7, recog- 
nized in common things 62, science of 3, sense of 
how educated 254, standard of is absolute 7 

Bell, Sir Charles — greatest source of happiness 65, 
hand governed by sensibility 51, hand the instru- 
ment for perfecting the senses 261 

Bench work — illustration of 16, should correlate with 
other studies 319 

P. ird forms — color learned from 163, conventionalized 
172, decorative 173, directions for modeling 207, 
250; 252; drawing and painting from life illustra- 
ted 49, drawing illustrated 351, essential features 
should be first grasped 172, memory drawings 
illustrated 161, modeling from life illustrated 207, 
250; models of for drawing, painting, modeling 
179, object lesson in 162, pi-imary ^vork illustrated 
160, simple form should become automatic 159, 
suggestions on drawing 159 

Bird's nest, directions for modeling 205 

Blackboard— design and drill work illustrated 121, 13S; 
designing on (suggestions) 135, 13S; exercises 
for6S, 69, 70, 71, 72, 9S, 134, 136, 13S; nigritschool 
work on, illustrated 37; shell exercises on 15S, 



value of blackboard work 10, work on made 
much of in woodwork construction 324 

Bodily life comprehended in mental action 340 

Book learning — book-bred people indisposed to action 
20, memory overtaxed 16, vitality consumed by 
17, words studied at expense of ideas 21 

Borders — acanthus leaf 295, beaded surface 292, carved 
work illustrated 292, 295 ; exercises in drawing 123 
for schoolroom decoration 3S5, models in plaster 
illustrated 227, plain curved 293, suggestions on 
carving 291, 295 ; suggestions on drawing 122,123; 
tongue and dart 292, 293 

Botanical drawing 165, 167; daisy lesson illustrated 
165, dandelion lesson 167, drawing from fruit il- 
lustrated 166, horse-chestnut leaf embodies many 
laws 165, leaf lesson illustrated 167, technical 
names easily learned 166, useful for school work 
164, 33S 

Botany, drawing as aid to 165, 167 33S 

Brain as an organized register of experiences 224 

Brush work (see Color and brush work) 

Bud forms iii 

Building constructions illustrated 309, iii, 313 

Calipers — best kind for curved surfaces 292, marking 
out mouldings with 293, 294, 295 ; use in rosettes 
2S6 

Capacity for drawing inherent 64 

Carpenter work, previous training required for 305 

Carrot, directions for modeling 21S 

Carving — see Wood carving 

Carving on curved surfaces — arms for settee and chair 
301, borders 292, 295 ; dolphin easy to cut 301, flat 
surface practice first29!,suggestionson"spoiled" 
work 292, work in illustrated 291, 302 

Casts (see also Plaster models) — Barye 1S2, 213, 246; 
fish forms make good 254, leaf forms 215, of wax 
models how made 259, teacher should make 1S2 

Chair forms — drawings from memory illustrated 176, 
177; examples of carved work 290, 297; sugges- 
tions on drawing 177 

Character and capacity improved by doing 341 

Charcoal drawing — don't stay too long at407, equip- 
ment and cost 405, first of art processes 405, get 
form, light and shade through 407, light and 
shade gradations with few touches 406, Raphael's 
Madonna del Cardellino 417, Rembrandt's ele- 
phant 39S, sketching the human figure 406, study 
sketches of old masters 406, too much sketchy 
work 407 

Chart-making for school use 354, 357 

Child study, danger of wrong- methods 40 

Chisel — acute vs flat 273, best practice at first with 272, 
beveling outer edge 274, curved form on round 
surface 294, 295; cutting around curve 273, 274: 
feeling form with 273, few kinds needed 263, flat 
form on curved surface 292, mallet used with 271, 
position tor holding- 271, 273; touch of guided by 
intelligence 2S0 

Circle, the — combinations of 122, directions for draw- 
ing 77, 78; directions for modeling 196, first exer- 
cise 77, meaning of in symbolism 17S, practice 
for freehand movements 41, six-movement exer- 
cises 79 



Index 



341 



Clay (see also Modeling and clay modeling) — box for 
191, care of 192, cavities in how avoided 24S, cost 
of iSS, manipulation of 193, 251 ; shrinkage ot 
in modeling 250, suggestions on using 190 

Clay modeling— aid to drawing S6, 154; animal forms 
1S6, 199 — 204, 247^255; basket 206, bird forms 
207, bird's nest 205, circular form, illustrated 196, 
elementary courses in 193— 20S; elementary forms, 
directions for making 194 — 207 ; elementary forms 
illustrated 1S9, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 19S, 
200, 202, 203, 204, 206, 231 ; first exercises, illustra- 
ted i9S,fish form 202, 253;for grammar grades 229 
— 245 ; frog 203, fruit and vegetable forms 209 — 226 ; 
geometric forms 221 — 227; leaf forms 11 2, 115, 195; 
lizard 203, modeled iorms illustrated 1S6, 1S9, 19S, 
211; inouse 204, natural forms should be more 
used 252, natural objects 203, reason for elemen- 
tary forms 207, shoe 205, small forms 1S9, snake 
202, spiral 194, suggestions on natural forms 352, 
tile 206, tree stump 205, turtle 203, vessel forms 
204, work in illustrated 27, 209 

Color — good example of in bird 164, light and shade 
after form 177, not best taught by tinted paper 48 

Color and brush work — freehand brush work 133, good 
brush handling iinportant 132, materials for 132, 
painting from nature 141, warning to teachers 141 

Common things — made beautiful 62, j^erfect lessons 
from 39, pleading to be understood 62 

Cone, directions for modeling 226 

Construction in woodwork, see Wood'vvork construc- 
tion 

Construction in woodwork and mechanical drawing 

305—314 
Constructive work, see Woodwork construction 
Co-ordination, physical — ambidextrous work creates 
48, drawing-, designing, carving makes 5, of 
motor centers 103, of hand, eve, brain 30, train- 
ing ot forms sense connections 39 
Correlation of drawing with other school work 52 — 57, 

339— 3S7 

Crattsmanship now vs. the past 307 

Crocket, the — combined with scroll as model 239, 
directions for modeling 239, single and double 
curved as drawing exercises 94 — 95 

Cube, directions for modeling 222 

Cupid's head carved 299, 300 

Curiosit)', value of in children 39 

Curvature, tangential— anthemion example of 104, horse- 
chestnut leaf 165, how become organic 99, neces- 
sit}' of in designing 99, shells show 15S 

Curved surface, see Carving on curved surfaces 

Cylinder, directions for modeling 224 

Daisy drawing lesson 165 

Dandelion dra\ving lesson 167 

Decorative work (see also Designing) — anthemion in 
103, bird forms for 172, 173; defense for 45, fish 
forms in 152—153 

Design, carving elementary units of — anthemion, how 
carved 2S5, conventionalized shell forms 2S9, 
designing the form to carve 266 — 26S ; fluted forms, 
tiovr carved 2SS, rosettes, how carved 2S6, scroll, 
how carved 2S3, 2S4; simple leaf, how carved 
2S4, spiral with crockets, how carved 2S5, three 



stages in work 2S3, 2S4; work by public school 
childi-en 131 

Designer, nature the best 155 

Designing (drawing)— alter work as little as possible 
137, blackboard 135, 136; both hands used 136, 
center of pattern first 137, color and brush work 
132, combinations of units 97, elementary units 
S7— 100; elements of 95, fish forms in 15J, har- 
mony in arrangement 100, object of teacher 137, 
originality of arrangement 95, original pattern 
10, 51 ; practical application of 96, 13S; rosette in 
93, 98; ruler, use of 132, secret of strength in 
100, see form as whole 20, sketching compared 
with 57, spiral used in 93 

Designing on wood (see also Wood carving) — avoid 
artificial means 266 design should be of use and 
value 266, free curves needed in 272, hard wood 
preferred 266, outline made perinanent 266, scor- 
ing the background 26S, simple freehand pattern 
fii-st 266 

Development, natural — foundation of 5, importance of 

12, H> IS 

Diagonals, exercises on 79 

Disposition or bent, natural ii, 15; common lack of 
development in 12, inspiration through discovery 
of 15, manual training methods find out 12 

Divine energy — bend to, in nature 63, 254; build on, in 
children 145, education should develop 164, flow 
with, not thwart 254, in each one 145, in natural 
things 345, magnetic, energizing power of 254 

Divinity of things, how learned 7 

Dolphin — conventional designs of 169, 170; fish forms 
first 170, suggestions for using 170, use in carv- 
ing 301, wax design 259 

Drawing (see also Manual-training drawing. Design- 
ing and Art students) — abstract forms disap- 
proved 174, absurdities of commercial systems 
44, anthemion 102 — 107; application the aim in 
designing 96, artificial aids opposed SS, attention 
to position, movement, etc. 76, automatic move- 
ments desired 84, beauty taught by 19, botanical 
165 — 167; bud forms 111, capacity for inherent 64, 
circle 77 — 79; channel for vivid and permanent 
impression 340, children suffer by wrong methods 
36, combinations of units and styles 97, 101 — 120; 
compared with writing 76, 146; conventional 
forms first 91, correlation with other school work 
52—57, 339—357; creative capacity developed 93, 
crudity corrected by habit 76, double loop 80 — S4; 
drill and design forms 121 — 131 ; drill for magni- 
tudes 127, drill work important 125, elementary 
units 87 — 100; elements of design 95; energy de- 
stroyed by definitions 145, enlarging 11, 162, 164; 
facility then accuracy 98, facts learned by illus- 
trating their meaning 339—341 ; first exercises 72, 
first experiments 9, foolish statements 43, free- 
hand for young children 73, fruit 167, fundamental 
methods 9, futility of present methods 56, general 
lack of training 35, 36; kindergarten fault 91, 
language of truth 56, language study correlated 
with 342, leading lines 98, leaf forms loS— no; life 
139 — 154; lining in opposed 76, 77; love of nature 
taught by 53, makes mind 33, materials 73, 74; 



342 



Index 



Melssonier on teaching 50, memory 139 — 16S; 
mental im.age vs. pencil lines 127,128; methods 
criticised 43, Michael Angelo's maxim 9, misuse 
of type forms 43, mode of thought expression 19, 
40, 45, 56, 64, 117, 146,339; Moorish units iiS — 120; 
moving models, drawing from i6i, natural 
method SS, natural vs. type forms 43, nature 155 — 
16S; nature study drawing 6, 345; not mere ac- 
•complishment 52, object 173, 176; originality in 
arranging forms 95, outlay required small 44, per- 
ception trained by 39, performance the test of 
teachers 45, perspective naturally acquired 174, 
preliminary manual-training drawing 67 — 74; 
primary work 160, province of, properly taught 
20, 32; reason for consecutive movements 79, re- 
inforces knowledge 70, sizes of units suggested 
91, speaking through finger tips 146, spiral 84 — 85, 
93; steps toward better methods 7 r, solids 127—129; 
straight lines 76, 79 — So; suited to the dull and 
backward 52, supplemented by modeling and 
carving 86, supplement to nature study 70, sys- 
tems in common use 36, 44; teachers should be 
tested 45, technical and hard words learned by 
drawing 342 — 344; technical terms and instruc- 
tions opposed S9, tangential curvature 99, teachers 
and supervisors should draw 42, teaches begin- 
ning of wisdom 53, union of thought and action 
by 40, universal tongue 33, 146; value as manual 
training 71, vital study 52, weakness of old 
methods 41, wrong and right way of teaching 
52 — 53 ; zoology aided by 343 
Drawing as mode of expression 19,40,45,56,64,117, 

146, I S3 

Drawing materials — manila paper for practice work 
73, ordinary lead pencils 74, paper 73, pencils 74, 
reason for no rubber 74 

Drexel institute methods 54 

Drill forms (see also Forms and Clay modeling) — anthe- 
mion loi — 107; automatic facility in 70, 76; bird 
forms 159 — 163, 172—173, 179; circle 77 — 79,122; 
combinations of units and styles 97, :oi — 120; 
double loop So — 84; drill forms and designs 121 — 
13S; elementary 75 — 100; ellipse 126, fish forms 
143 — 153; leading lines 98, leaf iorms loS, loop 
form 82, 83, 90, loi ; meanings enhance enjoy- 
ment 123, set forms opposed 72, spiral 80,84—85, 
93; straight lines 79 — So; strap work 124, vessel 
torms 127 — 129 

Drill work, importance of 125 

Duty — as a desire, not sacrifice 254, beauty of should be 
more dwelt on 254 

Education (see also Education in art and manual 
training) — abstract work consumes energy 50 
all channels should be used 22, book-bred people 
indisposed to action 20, common idea of 157, com- 
mon things made beautiful 62, common nature- 
study method criticised 58, correlate drawing with 
other school work 52, drawing and manual train- 
ing in 32, Emerson on 4, emotions and aspirations 
must be appealed to 360, energy from right 
methods 61, eye troubles, cause of 10, 21 ; facts not 
words iS, familiarity not knowledge 59, finding 
natural "bent" one aim of 12, first step to higher 
thought studies 54, health damaged by improper 



methods 62, knowledge means ability to use 18, 
340; learning facts by illustrating their meaning 
339, 341 ; loss of energy through unessential 
things 40, Maudslcy on 340, memory overtaxed by 
present modes 16, mental and bodily vigor by 
unionof study and " doing" 341, modeling human 
mind 227, motor centers trained 59, object of, real 

4, old methods faulty 21, 340; one problem of the 
new 341, perfect lessons from common things 39, 
progress requires persistence 142, schoolroom 
decoration 3S5 — 3S7; "special experts" opposed 
38, steps to character building 362, systematic 
training of senses through 38,teacher's mission 
15, teacher's personality recognized 34, traditional 
errors overcome 32, true education expands 
mind i,true teacher draws out energy 145, 150, 
164; union of study and "doing" 341, unites 
thought and action 32, value of direct knowledge 
of environment 54, value of few things well 
learned 34S, visual memory important 20, vitality 
consumed by book learning 17, words too often 
studied at expense of ideas 21 

Education in art and manual training (see also Edu- 
cation, and Art students, suggestions for) — am- 
bidextrous work 47 — 51; art and manual training 
in special schools 359 — 3S3; beauty, perception 
of developed 7, combinations of units and styles 
loi — 120; contact with things forms ideas 16—23; 
conventional and symbolic forms 169 — 184 ; cor- 
relation of drawing with other studies 339 — 358; 
development oi natural organism 4, drawing 
correlated with other studies 52 — 57, 339 — 357; 
drill forms and designs 121 — 13S; elementary drill 
forms 75 — 86; elementary units 87 — 100; elemen- 
tary work outlined 4 — 5; ideas first necessary 17, 
impressions assimilated through all senses 23, 
inspiration of natural method 17, intelligence 
from hand skill 39, life and memory drawing 
J39 — 154; manual dexterity, value of 233, me- 
chanical drawing 319 — 323 ; mechanical methods 
useless 9, mediums for shaping ideas 5, modeling 
animal forms 347 — 255; modeling lor grammar 
grades 229 — 245; modeling geometric forms 221 — 
227; modeling, preliminary 1S5— 230; modeling 
in wax 257 — 260; natural capacity discovered 

5, 12; nature and memory drawing 155 — 16S; 
nature studies 58 — 64; object of new method 34, 
organic memories developed' 5, physical co-ordi- 
nations 5, preliminary manual-training drawing 
67 — 74; real drawing needed 35 — 46, rectifying 
exercises 4, repetition and force of habit iS, ro- 
tation of work 5, school equipm.ent 33, school- 
room decoration 385 — 387; teachers not plants 
needed 34, teachers should be examined 45, teach- 
ers vs. imitators and copyists 45, 325; tool-using 
alone makes machines 4, tool work not the end 
but the means 317, true and false manual train- 
ing 24 — 34; union of head, hand, heart :S, utili- 
tarian idea overdone 26, 41 ; visual memory in 20, 
wood carving 261 — 302; woodwork construction 

30s— 337 
Elementary carving, instructions for — acute and flat 
chisels, use of 273, beveling off outer edge 274, 
cutting form around edge 273, cutting oak 



Index 



343 



splendid discipline 271, encourage the pupil 275, 
gradually increase grooves 272, how to carve 271, 
pushing chisel through wood 272, raised surface 
how carved 273, swing chisel with both hands 273 

Elementary courses in clay modeling 193—208 

Elementary forms, directions for modeling 194 — 207 

Ellipse— compels balance 126, exercises for automatic 
use 126, use in design 126, vessel forms 126 — 129 

Emerson — common things pleading to be understood 
62, good thoughts valueless unless executed 185, 
real object of education 4, thought ripened by 
action 1S5, what education is and should be 4 

Emotion — art arouses 360, touch children's 164, value 
of, through generous acts 254 

Energy — abstract work consumes 50, 67,; bend to divine 
in nature 63, build on divine in childi"en 145, con- 
sei-ved by nature knowledge 17, dissipated by 
mere book learning 17, divine in each one 145, 254; 
how lost during maturity 362, in children must 
have some outlet 360, loss of through unessential 
things 40, necessity of for success 14, pleasing 
forms help create 247, right education creates 
61, 300; saved by this method 10 

Essentialities first 93, 143, 14S, 178,201 

Esthetic training (see also Beauty) — essential to com- 
plete culture 39, influence of beauty 6, necessary 
in education 3, practical use of 3, 59 

Experience the mother of ideas 1 1 

Expression — drawing a mode of 19, 40, 45, 56, 64, 117, 
146; modeling a mode of iSS, 255 

Eye troubles, one cause of 10, 21 

Facility — automatic use of 76, before accuracy Si, 88, 
98, 122, 126, 140 

Familiarity not knowledge 59 

Farari, sample ol carving by 298 

Feeble-minded and insane, best education for 390 

Fine — art work, preparing for 403 

Fine arts, the — see Art students, suggestions for 

Finger tips, speaking through 146 

Fish forms (see also Drawing) — angel fish 144, caran- 
goid 144, color examples in 144, combined with 
other forms 152, directions for modeling 202, 
254; dra^ving creates knowledge of 151, 153; gen- 
eralizing 147, general remarks on 153, idealizing 
146, in design 152, mackerel 143, memory dra^\'■- 
ing of 148, 151 ; modeled in clay 1S5, sea bass 150, 
sheepshead 145, subjects for study 143, typical 
■ 145, use of for plaster casts 254 

Fluted forms, how carve 288 

Form — feeling form in wood 273, first considered 177, 
impression of best secured 86, 207; learned 
through modeling 177, 187; wood carving teaches 
real form 263, 300 

Forms (see also Drill torms and Clay modeling) —ani- 
mal forms in modeling 199 — 204,247 — 255; archi- 
tectural 183 — 1S4; botanical 164 — 167; chair 176, 
177; conventional and symbolic 169 — 1S4; con- 
ventionalized bird forms 172, decorative and 
conventional 45, dolphin 169 — 170; forms suitable 
for carving 296 — 300; fruit and vegetable forms 
in modeling 209 — 220, geometric in wood con- 
struction 326, 327 ; geometric too much used in 
drawing 56, idealized animal 171, natural before 



type 43. natural should be more used in school- 
room 2^2, natural vs. idealized 153, vessel shapes 
129 

Forms suitable for elementary carving— chairs 297, for 
small work 29S, frames 396 

Frazier, Mr. ^V. W.— authority on vacation and night 
schools 379 

Frog, directions for modeling 202 

Fruit forms, modeling from— apple 209—212; banana 
214, fruit tile 214, hints to teachers 212, modeling 
from nature 217, pear 212, texture easily imitated 
212, use of tool 210, 212 

Fruit, drawing from 167 

Fruit tile, directions for modeling2i4 — 217 

Furniture and other advanced work carving on— 
acanthus leaf molding 294, 295; arms for chairs 
and settees 300, 301 ; beaded surface border 292, 
calipers sometimes necessary 2S6, 292, 295; chair 
back piece 296, chair examples 297, curved sur- 
face, how carve on 291, forms suitable for carving 
296—300; illustrations 291-301; picture frames 
296, plain curved molding 293, 294; shell and leaf 
forms for 295, tongue and dart molding 392, work 
in illustrated 291 

Galpin, Sir Thomas — development of human faculty 20, 
visualization 20 

Geometric forms, modeling from — cone 235, cube 222, 
cylinder 224, general remarks 226, size best to use 
221, sphere 223, square prism 225, too much used 
56, 221, 224 

Goodness and truth examples of beauty 254 

Gouge— cutting channel around design 271, for remov- 
ing background 272, position of in carving 279, 
select according to curve 273, scooping out 
inside curve 373 

Greek art, learning to appreciate 208 

Griflins- freehand designs 13S, original design 255, 
suggestions on drawing 172, winged form in 
carved furniture 301 

Habits vs. principles 214 

Hailmann, Dr. W. N. — acknowledgment to 16, clothe 
utility with beauty 33. Dr. Hailmann's address 
at the graduating exercises of the Public School 
of Industrial Art, and his comment upon tnis 
book, are in the prefatory pages. 

Hall, Stanley — nature the source of education and 
religion 23 

Halleck, Prof. Reuben — acts vs. ideas 20, motor action 
needs cultivation 20,' motor paralysis of book 
absorbers 20 

Hand, the — Aristotle on 23, capacity for skill in 11, in- 
strument for perfecting other senses 261, instru- 
ment of instruments 22, intelligence from hand 
skill 39, leit-hand training needed 48—51, 79, So; 
Meissonier on left-hand work 51, obedient to will 
22, 76, 91, 276; power of to find texture in wood 
271, 273; right and left-hand work 47 — ji; sen- 
sibility governs the 51, Sir Charles Bell on 51, 
261 ; skilled hand vs. fluent tongue 23, variouis 
- mediums for 6 

Happiness in spite of drudgery 6, 310 

Harris, Dr. W. T. — art influence 360 



344 



Index 



Health — first consideration i, improper educational 
nietliods injure 62 

Hobby, value of tliis system as 13 

Horse-cliestnut leai embodies many laws 165 

Human form studies — charcoal drawings 406, methods 
of modeling- 412, modeling and drawing from 
life 401, modeling head from life 410, modeling the 
fisjure 411, 412; Raphael's Madonna del Car- 
dellino 417, sketching model in costume 409 

Ideas— ability to revive 57, as images of sensory im- 
pressions 207, basis of originality 30, develop- 
ment of 16, iS; disintegration of how prevented 
392, getting and giving first hand 32, good art 
requires 57, growth of 57, sense impressions 
create 16, 19; separate mental existence 57, sym- 
bols of things cannot create 17, thought fabric 
built by expressing 17, union of head, hand, 
heart necessary iS, words made valuable by 16 

Imitation — tendency ot art schools toward 149 

Impressions — more time for dwelling on needed 57, 
permanent and vivid through art channels 340 

Individuality — recognized in pupils 322, 329; recog- 
nized in teacher 34 

Insane and feeble-minded institutions — art and indus- 
trial training adapted for 390, disposition should 
be studied and interest awakened 391, Dr. Kirk- 
bride's experience 390, impoi-tance ot pleasing 
occupation 390, not all in institutions 392, pottery 
forms modeled by the insane 301, suggestions 
391 , things of beauty and value produced by 390 

Inspiration— at first hand 53, conserved by knowledge 
through nature 17, cultivation of 174, discovery of 
natural disposition creates ig, energy to act 
created by 62, first understanding of 57, in 
natural forms 253, manual training creates 15, 
performance ot deeds causes 15, 20; teachers' 
need of ij 

Intelligence through hand skill 39, 2S0 

Isometrical di^awing and its use 322 

Jacobi on perception and memory 1S5 

Joints — complex forms named 329, first exercises 325, 
illustrations 314, 331 ; simpler forms first 325 

Keene, Bishop — " stairway to God " 63 

Kirkbride, Dr., on adaptability of these methods to the 
feeble-minded and insane 390 

Knowledge (see also Education) — means ability to use 
iS, 340; not familiarity 59, 340; of environment 
necessary 54 

Leading lines 9S, 100 

Leaf, the — complex forms loS — no; combinations of 
leal and scroll 116 — 117; conventional forms first 
91, curved leat how modeled 242, directions for 
carving 20S, 2S4; directions lor drawing S7, direc- 
tions for modeling 195, 215, 237, 242; drilHvork 90, 
forms modeled in clay 112, 115, 208, 215, 237, 243; 
idealized forms 113, illustrations of 88,89; series 
of forms III — 116; simple forms 87 — 93; three- 
tipped leaf and variations 89 — 90; iinnecessary 
technical terms 89 

Left hand — see Ambidextrous work 

Lettering and design 175 

Lite drawing (see also Drawing, and Art students, 
suggestions for)-get new impressions from object 
140, human form studies 409 — 412; illustrations 



139, 141, 143, 144, 14s, 146, 150, 154; living fish 
should be studied 144, 149, 150; memory of form 
must be fixed 140, mounted forms, use of 142, 
moving models, drawing from 161, power regis- 
tered by practice 140, simplicity, importance of 
148, suggestions on 139 

Lite "ivork, fitted for by true manual training 32 

Light and shade (see also Color and Charcoal drawing) 
— after form 177, learned by modeling 177 

Lines, leading— fundamental lines in patterns 9S, 
soiral the basis 98, suggestions on use of 100 

Lining-in opposed 76, 77 

Lizard, directions for modeling 203 

Loop, the double— application of 82, directions for 
making 80, exercises on Si — 84; reason for vari- 
ous movements 82 

Machinery and power misused in technical schools 310 

Machine-shop methods, limitations of 306 

Machine-shop practice has its place 310 

Magnetic influence in nature 254 

Magnitudes — drill for 127, must be grasped mentally 
129 

Mallet — aid to chisel or g-ouge264, hand used as, illus- 
trated 277, position of illustrated 276, right and 
left hand with 273, use of with chisel 271, 273 

Manual training, the true (see also Manual-training 
drawing and Education in art and manual train- 
ing) — adapted to all grades and ages 9, balanced 
human organism by 4, contact with real things 
important 16, co-ordination of hand, eye, brain 
30, basis of all education 22, benchwork 16, 319; 
capacity and energy through 10, 12, 14; drawing 
the first essential 6, 9 ; drawing supplement to 29, 
dull and backward pupils adapted to 52, 389; ed- 
ucates to enjoy life even in drudgery 310, elemen- 
tary precedes special work 5, 29; feeble minded 
and insane educated by 390, first experiments 9, 
first principles i — 64; good-will of educators for 
10, hand obedient to will 76, hand skill makes 
intelligence 39, inspiration through 15, knowledge 
reinforced by 70, love of nature from 23, mind 
and character developed 31, mode of thought ex- 
pression 30, muscle and mind in harmony 31, old 
methods insufficient 41, old system of carpenter 
work illustrated 335, perspective powers trained 
24, 40; province of 32, reformatory institutions 
benefited by 393, school for not a machine shop 
309, self-reliance taught by 39, senses trained 38, 
smallest school can teach 34, sloyd, cooking, 
etc., not included 38, thought and action united 
24, 40; tools first needed 4, tools required inex- 
pensive 33, trade processes compared with 32, 
truant schools should teach 393 — 394; true dis- 
tinguished from false 31, wood-working opera- 
tions 29, -work of life fitted for 32 

Manual-training drawing (see also Drawing and De- 
signing) — construction lines not allowed 88, 
contact with things important 16, drill forms 72, 
75 — 86; drill work for fundamental skill 69, ele- 
mentary units 87 — 100; freehand manual and 
memory 13, modeling and carving supplements 
to 85, nature study with 70, paper for 73, plan of 
exercises 71, preliminary considerations 67 — 74 

Manual-training school not a machine shop 309 



Index 



345 



Maudsley — education and what it consists of 340, 
growth of ideation 57, ideas as images of sensory 
impressions 207, nerve experiences, registering 
of 143, physical basis of memory 4S, unconscious 
development of visual sensations 65 

Meanings of things better than meanings of words 34S 

Mechanical draughting, previous training required 
for 30s 

Mechanical drawing — artistic beauty of how lost 321, 
class room illustrated 304, course should include 
what 336, different drawings, same principle 322, 
draughting and when properly taught 305, draw- 
ings for wood working 330, equipment required 
336, Ireehand perspective illustrated 323, freehand 
projections illustrated 315, individuality of pupils 
always considered 322, instrument discussion 
begins course 322, isometrical drawing and its use 
322, isometric drawing lesson illustrated 316, 
machines should not be too much discussed 319, 
mechanical units 322, parallel and angular per- 
■ spective of educational value 320, 323 ; perspective 
and architectural design included 320, practical 
experience at machine shops desired 322, pupils' 
work illustrated 333, real manual training first 
306, rotation w^ith wood-working 315, screw princi- 
ple illustrated 321, tracing and blue printing im- 
portant 322, the previous training required 

30s. 321 

Meissonier — ambidexterity 51, drawing a basis of 
primary education 56, drawing expresses all 
things 56, language of truth 56 

Memory (see also Memory drawing) — basis of 4S, cor- 
rect use of 3S, mind expanded by drawing from 
143, physiological condition of 143, strengthened 
by drawing 39, visual 20 

Memory drawing (see also Drawing) — ability formed 
to " think " pictures 143, assimilate impressions 
irom real things 163, bird forms for 159, botanical 
forms 164 — 16S; fish forms good practice 143, 
good artists constantly refresh memory 143, illus- 
trations 14S, 151, 153, 155, 156, 160, 161, 162, 164; 
not enough insisted on 143, 149; persistence re- 
quired 142, primary work by little children 160, 
type forms must be fixed 146 

Mental and bodily vigor by union of study and 
" doing "341 

Mental fabric, building of iS, 22,48,50,57,60,150,344 

Mental image vs. pencil lines 127, 13S 

Mental inertia, resultof S 

Mental functions, development of 4S 

Metal, carved patterns for 302 

Metal work — esthetic idea usually lacking 337, art in 
394, designs 394, entirely mechanical funda- 
mentals before trade operations 337, illustration 
394, plaque illustrated 3S5, proper place in trade 
schools 337, repousse and hammered work 395, 
working in illustrated 395 

Methods in manual training (see also Manual training) 
— cost of equipments contrasted 33, distinction 
between true and false 24 — 34; false methods con- 
sume energy and inspiration 29, methods ad- 
vocated and criticised 4, old methods found 
ivanting' 9, 305 ; stupid claims for slovd 25 



Modeling (see also Clay modeling and Wax modeling) 
—aid to drawing S6, 154; animal forms 247-255; 
before carving 252, elementary courses in 193— 
20S ; " feeling form " 235, for grammar grades 229 
—245; form taught by 1S7, fruit and vegetable 
forms 209— 220; geometric forms 231—227; hints 
to the teacher 196, mode of expression 1S8, 255; 
plant required iSS, 190; preliminary instructions 
1S7— 192; props, use of 251, 253; suggestions on 
1S7 — iSS; wax modeling 257 — 360 
Modeling animal forms— advice to teachers 349, Barye 
casts for school use 1S2, 349; Barye casts Ulus- 
trated 213, 246; directions for modelin-g 199— 304, 
2-t7-2SS; general form first 249, individual taste 
of pupils consulted 247, modeling from birds 250, 
model for each pupil 34S, model the best teacher 
2^9, tool marks vs. smoothness 249, woi k by 
grammar pupils 251, work in, illustrated 1S6, 247 
Modeling and carving (see also Modeling and Carving) 

— ability inherent 64, aids to drawing 86 
Modeling for grammar grades— anthemion 241, curved 
leaf 242, leaf tile illustrated 237, leaf units 237, 
Moresque form 23S, rosette 234, scroll 230, scroll 
and crocket 239, scroll and leaflets 340, simple 
shell forms 243, suggestions 229 
Modeling, forms for — see Clay modeling 
Modeling fruit and vegetable forms 209—220 (see also 
Fruit forms and Vegetable forms, modeling 
from) 
Molding— acanthus leaf 294, 295; plain curved 293, 294; 

tongue and dart 292, 203 
Moorish units— directions for drawing 119, directions 
for modeling 338, Moresque designs 118, 119; 
Moresque unit illustrated 23S 
Morality embodied in nature 7 

Moral training (see also Night schools)— activities and 
individual faculties the aids to 6, 7; beauty part of 
goodness not enough taught 254, before intel- 
lectual I, character developed by manual train- 
ing 31, 233, 242; divine energy a splendid aid 254, 
duty should be a desire not a sacrifice 254, habits 
before principles 278, knowledge of beauty an 
important aid 6, morality embodied in nature 7, 
preference for good how best developed 7, skilled 
hands develop 23, 33 
Motor centers — co-ordination of 103, lack of active use 

frequent 59 
Mouse, directions for modeling 204 
Moxom, Dr. Philip S., on moral habits 27S 
Nascent period, best results at 29 

Natural disposition, common lack of development in ;3 
Natural forms — inspiration in 253, schoolroom use 

of 253 
Nature — best designer 155, drawing from 61, looking 
at things not enough 58, love for cultivated 60, 
manual training teaches love for 39, morality em- 
bodied in 7, painting from 141, touch of 64 
Nature and memory drawing 155 — 16S (see also Nature 

drawing and Memory draw^ing) 
Nature drawing (see also Drawing) — bird forms 159, 
161, 163; blackboard work 158, botanical 164 — 167: 
general form fi st aim 162, object drawing illus- 
trated 156, shell forms 155 — 15S 



346 



Index 



Nature study and memory drawing 155—163; common 
method criticised 58, 60, 61 ; drawing as supple- 
ment to 70, 73; drawing used in 6, 345; example of 
153,154; familiarity not knowledge 50, organic 
impressions in 60, right methods 5S — 64 

Natui-e-study drawing, use of 6 

Night schools— application and plant required 364— 
366; character and energy how naturally de- 
veloped 359—364; encourage the pupils 372, 
materials needed 366— 36S; plan of exercises 36S, 
principles and methods and their practical work- 
ing 359— 364; pupils often injured by goody-goody 
people 362, rewards or prizes 374, 377; scenes in 
358,361,365, 367, 371, 373, 375; street arabs 374, 
suggestions for controlling pupils 369, sugges- 
tions to teachers 370— 372; teachers needed 36S, 
value and use of manual-training methods 359, 
wood carving in 375 — 377; work illustrated 

369^ 374 

Normal schools — necessity for these methods being 
taught 3S0, public demands the new education 3S0, 
teachers can easily prepare themselves to teach 
true manual training 3S0 

Nude, drawing from the 406 

Oak — chiseling around curve difficult 271, cutting in, 
splendid discipline 271, experience with is the 
best teacher 271 

Objects of woodwork instruction 316 

Originality, ideas basis of 30 

Painting — See Color and brush work 

Paper for drawing 74 

Parents, a word to — can teach your own children from 
this book 396, parents are enthusiastic advocates 
of these methods 397, will gain pleasure and use 
by learning and teaching manual-training 397 

Parthenon, antefix of 104 

Pattern making after geometric forms 327 

Patterns in woodwork construction 305, 327, 329 

Pear, dii-ections for modeling 212 

Perception — accuracy of created 25, modeling an aid to 
219, foundation of reasoning and imagination 
20S, memory associated with 1S5 

Perspective — architectural design included with 320, 
lesson illustrated 32S, naturally acquired 174, 
parallel and angular 320, 323 

Plaster models — animal forms iSi, 213, 246; antique 
105, architectural models 1S3 — 1S4; Bai-ye casts 
for schoolroom 1S3, 1S6; borders 327, capitals 221, 
casts vs. nature iSo, Iruit forms 181, model for 
drawing, modeling and carving 187,240; panels 
222, shield 220, teachers should make 182, vs. 
clay models for schools 252 

Potato, directions for modeling 217 

Pottery forms illustrated 3S7 

Pratt institute methods 54 

Processes best for all pursuits first3i6 

Radical feature of real manual-training methods 306 

Raphael's Cardellino illustrated 417 

Reformatory institutions — character reformed by pleas- 
ing work 393, cheaper methods for society 393, ex- 
perience with art methods in 393, respectable 
livelihood may be earned 393 

Rembrandt's elephant illustrated and explained 398 



Repousse and hammered work 395 

Righteousness, second-hand vs. first hand methods 363 

Roof construction 311, 313 

Rosette, the — directions for carving 2S6, 2S8; direc- 
tions f(U- modeling 234, drawing exercises on 97 — 
98; Gothic form illustrated 345, illustrations of 
carved forms 2S7, modeled form 234, modeling ex- 
ercises on 19S, models for drawing, modeling and 
carving 99, round and square forms of illustrated 
2S7, various designs 96, with leaf form no 

Schoolroom decoration — aquarium 386, borders of 
simple pattern 3S5, charts give business air 386, 
designs and pictures 3S6, flowers 386, great art 
works undesirable 3S6, natural forms 385, shelves 
of interesting objects 3S5, simple art works easily 
understood 3S5, teacher's personality in 387, 
"works of art" alone no education 3S8, wrong 
methods may engender dislike for art forms 386 

School work aided by drawing — biology 345, blackboard 
work 34S, botany 346 — -352 ; chart making 354 — 
357; chemistry 352, elementary chemistry 347, ele- 
mentary science 346, entomology 352, language 
study 342, learning " hard" words 339, mineral- 
ogy 352, natural history 353, nature study 345, 
qualifying names 344, technical terms 343, 
zoology 343 

Scroll, the — combined with anthemlon 105 — 107; com- 
bined with crocket 239, combined with leaflets 
240, designing form to carve 2S3, directions for 
drawing and modeling 230, 239; modeled form 230, 
241; "modeled line" 230, modeling lesson on, 
illustrated 233, three stages in carving 2S4 

Self-relia.ice taught by manual training 39, 340 

Sense impressions — assimilation of 38, complexity of 
brain cells from 50,- concrete ideas from 19, co- 
ordination for individual harmony 48, cultivation 
of 63, importance of various 16, organized 59, re- 
produced through finger tips 146, sense channels 
how impressed 56, systematic training of 38 

Senses — brain co-ordination forms connection between 
39, distinct yet connected iS, mind developed 
through 207, practiced use of prevents accidents 
261, systematic training of 38 

Shakespeare on learning from nature 62 

Shell forms— blackboard work 15S, carvings of conven- 
tionalized 289, directions for modeling 243, from 
memory 155— 15S; from object 1^6 — 158; modeled 
form 229, models illustrated 158, 244 

Simplicity— characteristic of great artists 149, im- 
portance of 147, one aim sought in drawing 149 

Sketch and note books in woodwork construction 325 

Sketching constantly practiced by good artists 143 

Sketching vs. designing 57 

Sloyd method — busy work but not educational 28, not 
real manual training 38, original reason for 26, 
selected for criticism 28, stupid claims for 25 

Smiles, on habits vs. principles 214 - 

Snake, how to model 202 

Solids— cups and saucers 12S, drill for magnitudes 127, 
mental image vs. pencil lines 128, principle 
of Greek vessel forms 128, vessel forms for prac- 
tice 129 

Spencer— brain the register of experiences 224, educa- 



Index 



347 



ted senses and muscles needed in accidents 261, 
meaning of things vs. meaning of words 34S 

Sphere, directions for modeling 222 

Spiral, the — directions for carving spiral crockets 2S5, 
directions for drawing S4 — S5 ; directions for 
modeling 194^ drill forms So, frequent form in 
art 84, modeling 194, units of design based on 93 

Spoiled work vs. spoiled pupil 275 

Straight lines — directions for making 79, exercises on 
diagonals 79 

Strap work — exercises for accuracy 124 — 125; interlac- 
ing exercises 125 

Street arabs and what can be done with them 374 

Strength in designing, secret of 100 

Study and " doing " should go together 341 

Summer schools — these methods adapted to 3S2, work 
at illustrated 3S2, 3S3 

Swiss or Swedish carving 3SS 

Symbolic forms— circle iSo, cross iSo, hieroglyphics 
iSo, nimbus iSo, passion flower iSo 

Symbolism — explanation of 17S, forms in described iSo 

Tactual impressions — produce " seeing power " iSS, 
value of portraying 147, 160 

Tangential curvature — see Curvature 

Teacher — great field for 400, inspiration needed by 15, 
mission of 15, 227; personality recognized 34, 
true teacher draws out energy 14S, 150, 164; vs 
imitators and copyists 45 

Teachers, great field for 400 

Technical terms learned by drawing their meaning 343 

Things vs. symbols 16 — 23 

Thought — drawing as mode of expression 19,40, 45, 56, 
64, 117, 146, 339; modeling as mode of expres- 
sion iSS, 255; ripened by action into truth 1S5, 
thought should be put into work instead of into 
tools 317, valueless unless executed 1S5 

Thought and action imited by true manual training 
24, 40 

Thought fabric — see Mental fabric 

Thought studies, first step to higher 54 

Tools — calipers 2S6, 292, 293, 294, 295 ; carving set 
illustrated 265, chisel 263, 271, 272, 273, 274, 292, 
294, 295; clamps 263, clamps and mallet illus- 
trated 264, fewer lools, better workmen 263, 264; 
first ones needed 4, gouge 263, 271, 272,273, 293; 
mallet 263, 271, 273; marks of on Venus of Milo 
264, natural vs. artificial 4, 2S6; not end but 
means 317, parting tool 293, ruler 132, 2S6; sharp- 
ening 32S, simplicity of in Greek art 264, posi- 
tion in modeling illustrated 233, 235; position of 
modeling tool described 236, sculptors' best 243, 
set of carving, illustrated 265, use of in elementary 
modeling 210, 212; use of in grammar grade 
modeling 230 — 245 ; wood-working tools required 
for 20 pupils 334, work with should become auto- 
matic 317 

Tool work not the end but the means 317 

Tomato, directions for modeling 21S 

Tongue — drawing the universal 33, 146; vs. skilled 23 

Tongue and dart molding 292, 293 

Touch— master sense iSS, mind and jvidgment trained 
by iSS, sculptor's power in iSS 

Trade (see also Manual training, the true) — hand skill 
precedes trade learning 29, 32; hand of shown in 



common art methods 41, mercantile ideas over- 
done 8, 13; old-fashioned ideas unavailable 13, 
trade processes vs. manual training 32, 2S0; trade 
school's real irse 32, true handicraft trains eye, 
hand, brain 30, teaching of not beneficial 7, 
weakness of old method in teaching 32 

Trade processes vs. real manual training 32 

Trade school's real use 32 

Truant schools, etc— art methods always liked 393, en- 
thusiasm awakened 394, even " vicious" boys like 
work 394, forcing methods a failure 393, good 
word for pupils in 394, rebellion and hate vs. en- 
thusiasm 393 

Truth, the language of 56 

Utility— alone does not educate 54, clothed with beauty 
33, idea of overdone 26, 41 ; insufficient alone i 

Vacation and night schools, authority on 379 

Vacation schools — false vs. right methods 380, Mr. W. 
W. Frazier, authority on 379, too much experi- 
menting with 3S0, valuable results obtained 379 

Vaulting principle illustrated 324 

Vegetable forms, modeling from — carrot 21S, potato 217 
remarks on 218, tomato 21S, turnip 219 

Venus of Milo, tool marks on 264 

Vessel shapes 129 

Visual image — best workmen have 20, designer has 
137, necessary in designing 20, pleasure of use 
21, unconscious development of 65, universal 
need of 21 

Vitality consumed by mere book learning 17 

Vital force how acquired 57 

Voluntary action, "Wundt on 89 

Water-color painting from casts — best position for 
model 40S, materials 40S, painting Angelo's Dy- 
ing Slave 408 

Wax— cleaned by melting 259, colors of 258, compared 
with clay for modeling 257, cost and cai-e of 
257, 25S ; good substitutes for 257 

Wax modeling — designs 256, 257, 25S, 259; directions 
for making casts of wax models 259, drawing 
and lining in for 257, enlarging animal forms 
260, rough-texture wood best for 25S 

Women and girls, hand training adapted to 31, 264 

Wood — hard vs. soft in carving 265 — 266; practical use 
of hard 266, texture learned by experience 271, 275 

Wood carving — age for learning 264, avoid too deep 
cutting 273, background first removed 273, best 
work from the start 264, 265 ; beveling outer edge 
of design 274, borders 292 — 295; carved patterns 
for metal ■work 302, 305; carver's grip necessary 
280, carving on a curved surface 291 — 296, 300 — 
301; carving on furniture and other advanced 
work 291 — 302; carving the elementar}' units of 
design 2S3— 290; chairs 297, continuous clean cut 
273, Cupid's head in four stages 299, 300; cutting 
around curve 273, 274; design, carving elementary, 
units of 2S3 — 290; designing form for carving 
266; discipline and training value of 27S, educa 
tional value of 233, 263, 275 — 2S1 ; encourage the 
pupil 27s, energetic disposition fostered by 300, 
equipment, simplicity of 262, feeling the form in 
wood 273, finished work how used 277, finishing 
the carving 2S0, first steps in 266, 271 — iSi ; 
frames 296, free curves needed in designing 27'?, 



348 



Index 



furniture and other advanced work 291 — 301; 
goug'ing channel around design 271, graded work 
in 26S, grooves slight at first 272, hard vs. soft 
wood 265, hard wood pi-eferred 265, illustrations 
of examples of 2, 3, 65, 15S, 1S5, 261, 263, 26S — 271, 
2S1, 2S2, 2S3, 290, 291, 297, 29S, 299; instructions 
for elementary work 271 — 2S1 ; knowledge of form 
required 263, line of drawing not considered by 
expert carvers 273, muscular exercise for torpid 
muscles 279, panel illustrated 317, 389; position 
of hands 267, practical use of hard wood 255, 
raised surface how carved 273, scooping out inside 
curve 273, scored background illustrated 26S, 
scoring the background 26S, should be taught 
with clay modeling 317, should precede cabinet 
making 317, spoiled panel vs. spoiled boy 275, 
spoiled work made good 292, stupid pupils make 
skilled workmen 275, Swiss or Swedish carving 
3SS, teaching of not common enough 299, texture 
of wood learned by experience 271, 275; tools re- 
quired 263, 264, 255, 273; tracing is cheating 26S, 
transfer instruments not used 266, 267 ; wood work 
distinct from 317, working in, illustrated 19, 262, 
272, 274, 276, 277, 279, 291 ; wood to practice in 265 
Woodwork construction — abstruse ideas should be- 
come familiar 316. advanced construction 32S, ap- 
paratus for school purposes illustrated 320, archi- 
tecture 323, architectural column illustrated 314, 
art and mechanical sides both taught 325, art 
work before mechanical work 317, bench work 
should correlate with other studies 319, black- 
board work made much of 324, building construc- 
tions illustrated 309, iii 313; carpenter work, 
where it should he taught 305, comprehensive 
rather than detailed training 316, difference be- 
tween the important and tlie trivial must be dis- 



cerned 317, door model 317, drawings for -wood 
working 330, duplicate parts may be turned work 
329, education in requires no machinery 310, 312; 
equipment inexpensive 313, fallacy of ordinary 
methods 305, geometric modtls 326, 327; good 
teacher better than good tools 31S, individ- 
uality of pupils recognized 329, joints for first ex- 
ercises 325, joints illustrated 314, 331; machine- 
shop practice has its place 310, manual-training 
school not a machine shop 309, mechanical side 
how best taught 325, -nisuse of power and ma- 
chinery in technical sciiools 310, note and sketch 
books required 325, objects of instruction 316, pat- 
terns for advanced ^vork 329, patterns illustrated 

305, pattern iriaking after geometric form 
327, perspective lesson llkistrated 32S, pre- 
liminary training required 305, present vs. old- 
time craftsmanship 307, processes the best lor all 
pursuits first 316, radical feature ct this method 

306, real manual training first 306, root construc- 
tion 311, 313; sawing lesson illustrated 306, simple 
exercises for beginners 325, skilled mechanic 
alone not best teacher 31S, teacher's best qualifi- 
cations 325, thought should be put into work, not 
into tools 317, tools required for woodworking de- 
partment 334, tools not end but means 317, tool 
work should become automatic 317, typical forms 
most important at first 325, use of head work in 
315, vaulting principle illustrated 324, wood carv- 
ing distinct from 317, wood ■working course and 
what it includes 332, wood working illustrated 
306, 307, 308,312,319, 363; wood-working samples 
illustrated 305, 309, 311. 313, 314, 317, 320, 326, 327, 
329; wood-working tools for 20 pupils 334 

Wood-working course and what it includes 332 
Writing, compared with draw^ing 76, 146 



THE PUBLISHERS' WORD 

This book has been primarily a labor of love with the American publishers. It describes methods that have 
been successfully applied with many thousands of pupils and teachers in public, parochial and private schools, art 
classes, reformatory institutions, etc. At the World's Columbian Exposition, Mr. Tadd's working display- of his 
methods was awarded the only medal " for excellence and unique method of teaching drawing and its application to 
clay and wood." The judges were Russian experts in industrial education and manual training. It is further sig- 
nificant of true merit, that a different set of judges should have awarded another gold medal to this work as exhibited 
by the Roman Catholic high school of Philadelphia in another and distant department of the exposition. The report 
of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1894 says " the exhibit of this school was a surprise," and de- 
votes more space to it than to all the Philadelphia art schools and colleges combined. 

This school also received the lion's share of space and commendation in the voluminous i-eport to the Swiss 
government by its accredited delegate, Mr. Leon Genoud, director of the Museum of Industry and the Pedagog'ium, 
Fribour?-. Mr. Tadd was invited to explain his methods to the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 
1S95, and an institution for teaching these methods has since been sviccessfuUy inaugurated at Liverpool, while it is 
rapidly spreading thi'oughout the United States. In consequence of these and other indorsements, much inquiry for 
" the natural education" has come from leading educational bodies, not only in the United States, but in Norway 
Sweden, Switzerland, Belgium, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Australia. The present work is partly to 
satisfy these and similar inquiries. 

The American publishers offer their services to families, institutions, superintendents or teachers who may wish 
to adopt Mr. Tadd's methods in whole or in pai-t. Correspondence is invited regarding competent instructors in art, 
real manual training and nature study, concerning opportunities for the training of teachers in this method, or about 
the simple and inexpensive equipment and supplies required for these natural methods in the new education. We 
will cheerfully co-operate to any reasonable extent in promoting the universal use of these new methods in education 
that are so full of promise 'or the j'outh of the world. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Full Page Plates 



Frontispiece ii 

1 Charcoal drawings from casts vi 

2 Children's work, grammar grade, Philadelphia public schools 2 

3 Work in clay modeling, Public School of Industrial Art 27 

4 Blackboard work in a night school 37 

5 Unfinished charcoal sketch, showing how artists draw xii 

6 Drawing and painting birds from life 49 

7 Correlation of drawing with elementary natural science— entomology 55 

8 Ambidextrous designing 66 

9 Drawing and painting class, Public School of Industrial Art 92 

10 Painting in color form butterflies 141 

11 Drawing dog form life 154 

12 Bird form models for children to work from 179 

13 Girl modeling a lion 186 

14 180 small forms modeled in clay 189 

15 Some of the Barye casts 213 

16 A collection of pupils' work, Public School of Industrial Art 228 

17 Forms suitable for elementary schools 231 

18 Various positions of tool in modeling rosette and shell 285 

19 Modeling a lion 246 

20 Original designs modeled in wax 256 

21 Wood-carving room, Public School of Industrial Art 262 

22 Examples of wood carving 270 

23 Vestment case of R C high school pupils 282 

24 Mechanical drawing ^^4 

25 Part of wood-working room ^68 

26 Illustrating roof construction 311 

27 Simple and complex geometric models 326 

28 Drawings for wood working ^^0 

29 Mechanical drawings by pupils ^33 

30 Carpenter work— the old system of manual training 335 

31 Botany— application of drawing to elementary science work 338 

32 Elementary chemistry and drawing ^*' 

33 Drawing birds from nature ^°^ 

(349) 



350 



List of Illustrations 



34 St. James Boys' Guild, night school class 

35 Boys carving furniture in night school 

36 Summer class in Adirondacks at work 

37 Elementary mineralogy with drawing 

38 Rembrandt's study of an elephant 

39 Modeling and drawing from life 

40 Angelo's Sybil 

41 Drawing pigs, Adirondacks 

42 Sketching from cattle, summer school 



358 

371 

378 
384 
398 
401 
404 
414 
416 



Principal Pictures, Arranged by Subjects 



DRAWING 



Pupil working on original blackboard design lo, 

IS- 3S. 46, 134 
Enlarging sketchbook drawings 11, 162 
Freehand manual and memory work by little 

children 13 
Blackboard work in a night school 37 
Teachers practicing freehand circle 41 
Little child drawing circles 47 
Class drawing and painting birds from life 49 
Freehand designing, Germantown public school 

Correlation of drawing with elementary natural 

sciences — entomology 55 
Boy making freehand'chart 5S 
Drawing poultry from nature 61, 139 
Original designs by grammar-grade children 65 
Ambidextrous blackboard designing by class of 

boys 66 
Some primary exercises 67, 6S, 73 
Grammar grade practice 69 

Ambidextrous co-ordinations in four directions 70 
Grammar grade pupils making original designs 

7' 
First exercises, primary school, colored children 

72 
Loop forms for drill work 75, Si, 82, 84 
Freehand exercises in straight lines 76 
Circle form for drill work 78 
Straight-line form for drill work 79 
Children making drill movements and spirals So 
Making loop forms with both hands, primary 

children 83 
Spiral forms for drill work 84, 85, S6 
Drawing bird forms trom memory 87 
Leaf forms for drill work 88, 89, 108, 109 

no, 113, 113, 1 14 
Practicing leaf forms and loops 90 
Drawing and painting class, Public School of 

Industrial Art 92 
Units of designs based on the spiral 93 



Crocket forms for drill work 94 

Units ot design based on spiral and crocket 9? 

Pupil practicing scroll and crockets 95 

Rosettes of various designs 96 

Combinations of units for drill work 97 

Blackboard exercises— drawing rosettes gS 

Rosette models 99 

Practice work for leading lines 99, 100 

Teachers practicing drill forms 101 

Anthemion forms for drill work 102, 104, 106, i(yj 

Co-ordination of motor centers illustrated 10} 

Practicing the anthemion and scroll 107 

Bud forms for drill 11 1 

Combinations of leaf and scroll 116, 117 

Moresque designs 118, 119 

Colored pupils making blackboard designs 121 

Combinations of circle for practice work 122 

Exercise in drawing borders 123 

Pupil making strap work 124 

Ellipse forms for practice 126 

Memorizing magnitudes and making solids 127 

Making vessel forms 129 

Drill forms and designs 130 

Design tor stained glass window 131 

Designs by public school children 131 

Freehand brush play 133 

Class of teachers, designing on blackboard 136 

Freehand design with griffins 13S 

Painting in color from nature 141 

Common mackerel 143 

The carangoid fish 144 

Angel fish 144 

Sheepshead 145 

The silver moonfish 146 

Children drawing fish forms from memory 148, 

The sea bass 150 
Fish forms in design 152 
Nature study offish form 153 
Shells drawn from memory 155 



List of Illustrations 



351 



Drawing from the object and memory drawing- 

Lesson from the shells 157, 15S 
Children drawing animals from memory 160 
Memory drawings of birds 161 
Bird's wing and feather 163 
Daisy drawing lesson 165 
Woiiving from Irnit and branch 166 
The dandelion in its different stages 167 
Botanical drawing of leaves 167 
Swans 16S 

Dolphin forms in conventional design 169, 170 
Idealized animal forms 171 
Decorative birds 173 
Exercises in lettering and design 175 
Drawing from objects in various positions 176 
Freehand drawing of chairs 177 
Bird forms for model'j 173 
Architectural forms from memory 1S3 
Application of drawing to botany 33S 
Learning hard words by illustrating their mean- 
ing 339 
Learning tacts by drawing them 341 
Architectural styles and how learned 342 
Drawing correlated with zoology 343 



Biology and drawing 345 

Elementary chemistry 347 

Memory drawing of elementary botany 349 

Birds from nature 351 

Correlation with natural history 353 

Painting charts 355 

Instrumental and cast drawing, night school 373 

Summer class in Adirondacks 37S 

Elementary mineralogy 3S4 

Nature study 393 

Rembrandt's elephant 39S 

Landscape painting- and drawing 403 

Angelo's Sybil 404 

Charcoal sketching from life 405 

Painting in water color from cast 403 

Sketching human model from life 409 

Drawing the horse 413 

Lesson from the pig 414 

Cattle sketching 416 

Raphael's Madonna del Cardellino 417 

Small decorative pieces— Panel i, 34, 74, 261, 3S1, 
303; Animal forms 4, 26; Bird forms 5, 8, 
21, 30, 40, 45, 54, 60; Fish 6, 32, 43 ; Rosette 
23; Leaf forms 57, 62; Spoon shapes 59; 
Feather 63, Shells 64 



MODELING 



Work in clay modeling. Public School of Indus- 
trial Art 27 
Girl modeling fruit forms from natui"e 53 
Models of leaf forms 65, icg, 112, 115, 20S 
Rosette forms 99 

Plaster models from the antique 105 
Leaf forms in design 115 
Bird forms as models 179 
Fruit forms iSi 
Animal forms in plaster iSi 
Plaster casts of architectural styles 1S4 
Fish forms 185 

Pupil modeling animal forms 1S6 
Plaster models for drawing, modeling and carv- 
ing 187, 240 
Small forms suitable for children 1S9 
Making geometric and bird forms 191 
First exercises in modeling 191, 197, 19S 
Portion of modeling room, Public School of 
Industrial Art 192 

Making a ball of clay 193 
Forming the spiral 194 

Leaf forms — exercise for manipulation of clay 195 

Molding a circular form 196 

Elementary forms in clay 200 

Modeling the snake 202 

Modeling various natural objects 203 

Elementary modeling of animal forms 204 

A modeled tile 206 

The real bird and its clay model 207, 250 

Class working on a curved surface 209 

Fruit and vegetable casts 2n 

Some of the Barye casts 213 

Casts of leaf forms 215 

Making fruit forms from nature 217 



Branch and fruit 219 

Plaster model of shield zzo 

Models of plaster capitals 221 

Pilaster panels, Italian renascence 222 

Reducing acanthus leaf forms 223 

Modeling a head 225 

Various borders 227 

Collection of pupils' work, Public School of In- 

dustrial Art 22S 
Shell form to work from 229 
The scroll in clay 230 

Forms suitable for elementary schools 231 
Position for tool while turning a scroll 233 
Complex rosette 234 

Position of tool in modeling rosette and shell 335 
A leaf tile 237 
The Moresque unit 23S 
Scroll and crocket 239 
Scroll and leaflet 241 
Anthemion in clay 241 
Various arrangements of anthemion 242 
The curved leaf 243 
Real shells for models 244 
Gothic rosettes 245 
Modeling a lion 246 
Class in advanced clay work 247 
Casts of animal forms 24S 
Animal forms, grammar grade work 351 
Making fish forms 253 
Griffin, original design 255 
Original designs m wax 256 
Pupil modeling in wax 257 
Original wax panel 25S 
Making a dolphin in wax 259 
Enlarging animal forms in wax 260 



352 



List of Illustrations 



Night school at work 35S, 361, 365, 367, 375 
Children modeling vase forms 3S2 
Modeling the dog from life 3S3 
Underglaze pottery forms 3S5, 3S7 
Pottery forms by the insane 391 



Molding a vase 399 
Modeling and drawing from life 401 
Modeling head from life 410 
Making the human figure 411, 412 



CARVING 



Children's work, grammar grade, Philadelphia 

public schools 2 
Clock, designed, drawn and carved by high 

school boys 3 
Wood-carving class. Public School of Industrial 

Art 19 
Chair 24, 290 
Roselte models 99 

Wood carving by school boy 1S5, 263, 269, 2S3 
Class at work, Public School of Industrial Art' 

262 
Clamps and mallet for wood carding 264 
Set of carving tools 265 
Positions of hands and tools in carving 267, 272, 

274, 276, 277, 279 
Background marked over for cutting out 26S 
Examples of wood carving 270 
Chest carved by pupils 271 
Vestment case, pupils' work 2S2 
Scroll and leaf forms, three stages 2S4 
Spiral with crocket, three steps 2S5 
Anthemion and rosettes 287 



Fluted forms 2SS 
Conventionalized shell forms 2S9 
Carving on a curved surface 291 
Borders and moldings 292, 293, 294, 295 
Piece for chair back 296 
Frames b}' night school pupils 296 
Chairs by public school pupils 297 
Italian renascence carving 29S 
Cupid's head, in four stages 299 
Arms for settee and chair 391 
Carved patterns for metal 302, 305 
Night school class 361, 371 
Some night school work 369 
Panel by night school pupil 374 
Chairs by normal class 376 
Desk panel, two stages 3S1 
Swiss or Swedish carving 38S 
Carved panel by teacher 3S9 
Art metal work 394, 395 
Carving in the round 396 
Stand, normal class work 397 



WOODWORKING AND MECHANICAL DRAWING 



Boy at bench work 16 

Class in mechanical drawing 304 

A lesson in sawing 306 

Making joints 307 

Part of wood-working room 30S 

Building construction 3C9 

Illustrating roof construction 311 

Cutting dovetail and sharpening chisel 313 

Qiieen post roof truss 313 

Forms of joints 314, 331 

Pupil drawing projections freehand 315 

Isometric drawing lesson 316 

Model of door 317 

House building— lesson on stairs 31S 



Applying try square to planed surface 329 

Apparatus for school purposes 320 

Demonstrating principle ot screw 321 

Drawing freehand perspective 323 

Construction demonstrating "vaulting" 324 

Simple and complex geometric models 326 

Geometric forms, made without lathes 327 

Lesson in perspective 32S 

Forms and patterns, pupils' work 329 

Drawings for wood working 330 

Mechanical drawings, applying principles 

learned 333 
Carpenter work, old system 335 
Painting chart of mechanical forms 357 



SUGGESTIONS TO ART STUDENTS 



High school wood-working department 363 

Charcoal drawings from casts 6 

Unfinished charcoal sketch trom the nude 12 

Rembrandt's study of an elephant 39S 

Modeling and drawing from life 401 

Landscape painting and drawing in the Adiron- 

dacks 403 
Angelo's Sybil — fresco from Sistine chapel 404 
First stage of charcoal sketch from life 40^ 



Drawing from the nude 405 
Painting Angelo's Dying Slave from cast 40S 
Sketching from life— model in costume 409 
Modeling a head from life 410 
Modeling the figure— first view 41 1 
Modeling the figure— second view 412 
Raphael's study for the Madonna del Cardel- 
lino 417 



Mar. 12 1901 



FEB 12 1901 



i,S.^^y. °^ CONGRESS 



-1^ 












